https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Panglossa Panglossa Wiki - User contributions [en-gb] 2026-11-14T08:21:20Z User contributions MediaWiki 1.41.0 https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Grammaire_%C3%89gyptienne/CHAPITRE_V&diff=5402 Grammaire Égyptienne/CHAPITRE V 2026-11-10T18:33:47Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>{| width=&quot;100%&quot; <br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; |<br /> [[../]]<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:left;width:33%;&quot;|<br /> [[../CHAPITRE IV/]] ⇐<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center;width:33%&quot; |<br /> '''{{SUBPAGENAME}}'''<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:right;width:33%;&quot;|<br /> ⇒ [[../CHAPITRE VI/]]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| width=&quot;100%&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; class=&quot;padding1em&quot;<br /> !Français<br /> !Português<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;width:50%&quot; |<br /> &lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;<br /> CHAPITRE V<br /> <br /> DES NOMS PROPRES ET DE LEURS DÉTERMINATIFS. <br /> <br /> ----<br /> &lt;/div&gt;<br /> |<br /> &lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;<br /> CAPÍTULO V<br /> <br /> NOMES PRÓPRIOS E SEUS DETERMINATIVOS.<br /> <br /> ----<br /> &lt;/div&gt;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> 111. Les noms propres véritablement égyptiens, c’est-à-dire tirés du fond même de la langue, étaient tous significatifs; aussi se composaient-ils de deux parties bien distinctes : <br /> <br /> 1º Des signes ou groupes, soit phonétiques , soit symboliques ou même figuratifs, qui constituent le nom lui-même; <br /> <br /> 2º D’un caractère déterminatif du genre auquel appartient l'espèce de l’individu désigné par le nom propre. <br /> |<br /> 111. Os nomes próprios verdadeiramente egípcios, isto é, retirados da base da língua, eram todos significativos; eles também consistiam em duas partes muito distintas:<br /> <br /> 1º Sinais ou grupos, fonéticos, simbólicos ou mesmo figurativos, que constituem o próprio nome;<br /> <br /> 2º Um sinal determinativo do gênero ao qual pertence a espécie do indivíduo designado pelo nome próprio.<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> § 1er. NOMS PROPRES DES DIVINITÉS<br /> <br /> A. Noms propres des dieux.<br /> <br /> <br /> 112. Les noms propres des divinités mâles se terminent habituellement par l’un des signes déterminatifs génériques qui sont affectés exclusivement à cette classe de noms. Ces déterminatifs sont: <br /> <br /> 1º Le caractère figuratif &lt;hiero&gt;A40&lt;/hiero&gt; linéaire [[File:2024-07-19_10-11.png]], hiératique [[File:2024-07-19_10-12.png]], qui représente un personnage barbu, assis à la manière égyptienne, et dans un état complet de repos: ce signe détermine, soit les noms propres phonétiques:<br /> |<br /> § 1º. NOMES PRÓPRIOS DAS DIVINDADES<br /> <br /> A. Nomes próprios dos deuses.<br /> <br /> <br /> 112. Os nomes próprios das divindades masculinas geralmente terminam em um dos sinais determinativos genéricos atribuídos exclusivamente a esta classe de nomes. Esses determinativos são:<br /> <br /> 1º O sinal figurativo &lt;hiero&gt;A40&lt;/hiero&gt;, linear [[File:2024-07-19_10-11.png]], hierático [[File:2024-07-19_10-12.png]], que representa um personagem barbudo, sentado à maneira egípcia e em completo estado de repouso: este sinal determina os nomes próprios fonéticos:<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |<br /> {| style=&quot;margin:auto;&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;i-Y5:n-A40&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-19_14-56.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲁⲙⲛ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲁⲙⲟⲩⲛ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Ammon.<br /> |Ámon.<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;p:t-H-A40&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-19_14-58.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲡⲧϩ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲡⲧⲁϩ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Phtah.<br /> |Ptah.<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;Y5:n-U33-A40&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-19_14-59.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;Ⲙⲛⲑ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;Ⲙⲟⲛⲑ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Month.<br /> |Montu (Monte, Montju, Mente, Mentu).<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;Y5:n:T-w-A40&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-19_15-03.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;Ⲙⲛⲑⲟⲩ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;Ⲙⲟⲛⲑ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Month.<br /> |Montu (Monte, Montju, Mente, Mentu).<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;Y5:n-i-A40&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-19_15-04.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;Ⲙⲛⲟ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> | «<br /> |Mnévis.<br /> |Mnévis.<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;s-k:r-A40&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-19_15-06.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;Ⲥⲕⲣ.ⲥϭⲣ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> | «<br /> |Sakr, Sokar.<br /> |Sokar, Seker.<br /> |}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> Soit les noms propres exprimés symboliquement, comme:<br /> |<br /> Seja os nomes próprios expressos simbolicamente, como: <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |<br /> {| style=&quot;margin:auto;&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;S40-D4:A40&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-19_21-49.png]]<br /> |(&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲟⲩⲥⲓⲣⲉ&lt;/span&gt;),<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;Ⲟⲩⲥⲓⲣⲉ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Osiris.<br /> |Osíris.<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;G5-Z1-A40&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-19_21-51.png]]<br /> |(&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ϩⲱⲣ&lt;/span&gt;),<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ϩⲱⲣ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Horus.<br /> |Hórus.<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;N6:Z1-A40&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-19_21-52.png]]<br /> |(&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲡⲣⲏ&lt;/span&gt;),<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;Ⲣⲏ&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;Ⲡⲣⲏ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Rà, Phré<br /> |Rá<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;N31-A40&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-19_21-54.png]]<br /> |(&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ϩⲱⲣ&lt;/span&gt;),<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ϩⲱⲣ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Horus.<br /> |Hórus.<br /> |}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> Le caractère tropique &lt;hiero&gt;R8&lt;/hiero&gt;, linéaire [[File:2024-07-23_10-20.png]], (hiératique [[File:2024-07-23_10-20_1.png]]) initiale du mot &lt;hiero&gt;R8-t:r&lt;/hiero&gt; qui répond au copte ⲛⲟⲩⲧⲉ, Dieu. Ce caractère est remplacé par le signe [[File:2024-07-23_10-21.png]] dans les textes hiératiques:<br /> |<br /> O signo trópico &lt;hiero&gt;R8&lt;/hiero&gt;, linear [[File:2024-07-23_10-20.png]], (hierático [[File:2024-07-23_10-20_1.png]]) initial da palavra &lt;hiero&gt;R8-t:r&lt;/hiero&gt; que corresponde ao copta ⲛⲟⲩⲧⲉ, deus. Este signo é substituído pelo sinal [[File:2024-07-23_10-21.png]] nos textos hieráticos:<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |<br /> {| style=&quot;margin:auto;&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;D4:Q1*R8&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-23_10-24.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲟⲩⲥⲣⲏ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲟⲩⲥⲓⲣⲉ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Osiris.<br /> |Osíris.<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;s-k:r:y-R8&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-23_10-25.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲥϭⲣⲓ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> | «<br /> |Sakri, Sochari<br /> |Sokar, Seker.<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;i-m-z:T-R8&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-23_10-26.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲁⲙⲥⲑ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> | «<br /> |Amsèth.<br /> |Amset, Omset (?)<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;L1:r-i-R8&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-23_11-50.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲑⲣⲉ&lt;/span&gt;, <br /> | «<br /> |Thré, Thoré.<br /> |Khepri (Khepera, Kheper, Khepra, Chepri) <br /> |}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> Souvent même les noms propres des dieux se trouvent déterminés dans les textes hiéroglyphiques par ces deux caractères à la fois, ce qui constitue alors un déterminatif tropico-figuratif; exemples: <br /> <br /> |<br /> Muitas vezes até os nomes próprios dos deuses são encontrados determinados em textos hieroglíficos por esses dois caracteres ao mesmo tempo, o que constitui então um determinativo trópico-figurativo; exemplos:<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |<br /> {| style=&quot;margin:auto;&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;t:U15-m-w-A40-R8&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲧⲙⲟⲩ&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲑⲙⲟⲩ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Thmou, Athmou.<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;z:k:r:y-A40-R8&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲥϭⲣⲓ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Sakri, Socharis<br /> |Sokar, Seker.<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;s*b:k-A40-R8&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲥⲃϭ&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲥⲃⲕ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Sévék<br /> |Sobek (?)<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;n-n:p*w-A40-R8&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲁⲛⲡⲟⲩ&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲁⲛⲟⲩⲡ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Anubis.<br /> |Anúbis.<br /> |}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> Il importe d’observer que le caractère déterminatif figuratif de genre &lt;hiero&gt;A40&lt;/hiero&gt; (Dieu), est susceptible de se combiner avec des signes tropiques exprimant des attributs; il résulte de cette alliance, des signes complexes tels que &lt;hiero&gt;A42&lt;/hiero&gt; et &lt;hiero&gt;A47&lt;/hiero&gt;, lesquels, bien que simples déterminatifs génériques des noms propres des divinités mâles, emportent en même temps avec eux l'idée d'une qualité inhérente au dieu et qu'exprime le caractère additionnel; ainsi on devrait rigoureusement traduire les noms propres:<br /> |<br /> É importante observar que o sinal figurativo determinativo de gênero &lt;hiero&gt;A40&lt;/hiero&gt; (eeus), é capaz de se combinar com signos trópicos que expressam atributos; resultam desta aliança signos complexos como &lt;hiero&gt;A42&lt;/hiero&gt; e &lt;hiero&gt;A47&lt;/hiero&gt;, que, embora sejam simples determinantes genéricos dos nomes próprios das divindades masculinas, ao mesmo tempo carregam consigo a ideia de uma qualidade inerente ao deus e expressa pela marca adicional; portanto, devemos traduzir rigorosamente os nomes próprios:<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |<br /> {| style=&quot;margin:auto;&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |[[File:2024-07-23_12-20.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲁⲙⲛ̄-ⲛⲧⲣ-ⲣⲱϧⲓ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |par<br /> |Ammon-Dieu pur.<br /> |por<br /> |Ámon-Deus puro.<br /> |-<br /> |[[File:2024-07-23_12-22.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ϩⲁⲡⲓ-ⲛⲧⲣ-ⲱⲛϧ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |par<br /> |Hapi-Dieu-vivant.<br /> |por<br /> |Hapi-Deus-vivo.<br /> |-<br /> |[[File:2024-07-23_12-22_1.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲡⲧⲁϩ-ⲛⲧⲣ-ⲣⲱϧⲓ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |par<br /> |Phtah-Dieu-pur.<br /> |por<br /> |Ptah-Deus-puro.<br /> |-<br /> |[[File:2024-07-23_12-23.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲁⲛⲡⲟⲩ-ⲛⲧⲣ-ⲱⲛϧ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |par<br /> |Anubis-Dieu-vivant.<br /> |por<br /> |Anúbis-Deus-vivo.<br /> |}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> Il y a plus: le déterminatif générique &lt;hiero&gt;A40&lt;/hiero&gt; (dieu mâle), devient un véritable déterminatif figuratif du dieu dont il accompagne le nom propre, soit phonétique, soit symbolique, <br /> <br /> <br /> 1º Lorsque le scribe charge cette image de divinité à face humaine, barbue et assise, de la coiffure habituelle ou des insignes ordinaires du dieu exprimé par le nom. Exemples:<br /> |<br /> E mais: o determinativo genérico &lt;hiero&gt;A40&lt;/hiero&gt; (deus masculino) torna-se um verdadeiro determinativo figurativo do deus cujo nome próprio acompanha, seja fonético ou simbólico,<br /> <br /> <br /> 1º Quando o escriba carrega esta imagem de uma divindade com rosto humano, barbada e sentada, com o penteado habitual ou insígnia ordinária do deus expresso pelo nome. Exemplos:<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |<br /> {| style=&quot;margin:auto;&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;i-Y5:n-C12&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |ⲁⲙⲛ.ⲁⲙⲟⲩⲛ,<br /> |Amoun, Ammon (Zeus), Ἄμμων.<br /> |Ámon (Zeus), Ἄμμων.<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;W25:N1-C18&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |ⲛ̄ⲡⲉ.ⲙ̄ⲫⲉ,<br /> |Emphé (forme de Moui).<br /> |Emphé (?) (forma de Moui).<br /> |-<br /> |[[File:2024-07-23_15-51.png]]<br /> |ⲛ̄ⲡⲉ.ⲙ̄ⲫⲉ,<br /> |Emphé (forme de Moui).<br /> |Emphé (?) (forma de Moui).<br /> |-<br /> |[[File:2024-07-23_15-56.png]]<br /> |ϣⲛⲥ.ϣⲱⲛⲥ,<br /> |Chons, Χωνς, fils ainé d'Ammon (Hercule).<br /> |Consu (Khonsu, Khensu), Quespisiquis, Χωνς, filho mais velho de Ámon (Hércules).<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;p:t-H-A40&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |ⲡⲧϩ.Ⲡⲧⲁϩ,<br /> |Phtah, Φθὰ (Hephæstus).<br /> |Ptah, Φθὰ (Hefesto).<br /> |-<br /> |[[File:2024-07-23_16-00.png]]<br /> |ⲡⲧϩ.Ⲡⲧⲁϩ,<br /> |Phtah, Φθὰ (Vulcain).<br /> |Ptah, Φθὰ (Vulcano).<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> 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[[File:PJ1135.C45_161.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_162.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_163.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_164.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_165.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_166.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_167.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_168.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_169.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_170.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_171.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_172.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_173.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_174.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_175.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_176.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_177.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_178.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_179.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_180.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_181.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_182.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_183.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_184.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_185.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_186.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_187.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_188.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_189.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_190.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_191.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_192.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_193.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_194.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_195.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_196.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_197.JPG]] <br /> |}</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Common.css&diff=5401 MediaWiki:Common.css 2026-11-10T16:53:49Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>@import url('https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Calistoga&amp;display=swap');<br /> <br /> /* CSS placed here will be applied to all skins */<br /> .latin {<br /> font-family: &quot;Calistoga&quot;, serif;<br /> font-weight: 400;<br /> font-style: normal;<br /> font-size:133%;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .centeredcells td {<br /> text-align:center;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /**<br /> * Trumbowyg v2.27.3 - A lightweight WYSIWYG editor<br /> * Default stylesheet for Trumbowyg editor<br /> * ------------------------<br /> * @link https://alex-d.github.io/Trumbowyg/<br /> * @license MIT<br /> * @author Alexandre Demode (Alex-D)<br /> * Twitter : @AlexandreDemode<br /> * Website : alex-d.fr<br /> */<br /> <br /> #trumbowyg-icons,<br /> .trumbowyg-icons {<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> visibility: hidden;<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> }<br /> #trumbowyg-icons svg,<br /> .trumbowyg-icons svg {<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box *,<br /> .trumbowyg-box *::before,<br /> .trumbowyg-box *::after,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *::before,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *::after {<br /> -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> -moz-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> box-sizing: border-box;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box svg,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal svg {<br /> width: 17px;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> color: #222;<br /> fill: #222;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-box-orient: vertical;<br /> -webkit-box-direction: normal;<br /> -webkit-flex-direction: column;<br /> -moz-box-orient: vertical;<br /> -moz-box-direction: normal;<br /> -ms-flex-direction: column;<br /> flex-direction: column;<br /> min-height: 300px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> display: block;<br /> -webkit-box-flex: 1;<br /> -webkit-flex: 1;<br /> -moz-box-flex: 1;<br /> -ms-flex: 1;<br /> flex: 1;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> position: relative;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> border: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> min-height: 100%;<br /> margin: 0 auto;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> background: #fefefe;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> position: relative;<br /> -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> -moz-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> box-sizing: border-box;<br /> padding: 20px;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> border-style: none;<br /> resize: none;<br /> outline: none;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> -webkit-user-select: text;<br /> -moz-user-select: text;<br /> -ms-user-select: text;<br /> user-select: text;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box.trumbowyg-autogrow-on-enter,<br /> .trumbowyg-textarea.trumbowyg-autogrow-on-enter {<br /> -webkit-transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> -o-transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> padding: 0;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> outline: none;<br /> padding: 20px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: transparent !important;<br /> text-shadow: 0 0 7px #333;<br /> }<br /> @media screen and (min-width: 0 \0 ) {<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(200, 200, 200, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> @supports (-ms-accelerator: true) {<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(200, 200, 200, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor img,<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor hr {<br /> opacity: 0.2;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> position: relative;<br /> display: block;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> border: none;<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> font-family: &quot;Consolas&quot;, &quot;Courier&quot;, &quot;Courier New&quot;, monospace;<br /> line-height: 18px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-visible .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> height: 1px !important;<br /> width: 25%;<br /> min-height: 0 !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> background: none;<br /> opacity: 0 !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-hidden .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> display: block;<br /> -webkit-box-flex: 1;<br /> -webkit-flex: 1;<br /> -moz-box-flex: 1;<br /> -ms-flex: 1;<br /> flex: 1;<br /> margin-bottom: 1px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-hidden .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> display: none;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> opacity: 0.8;<br /> background: none;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box[contenteditable=true]:empty:not(:focus)::before {<br /> content: attr(placeholder);<br /> color: #999;<br /> pointer-events: none;<br /> white-space: break-spaces;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> -ms-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> min-height: 36px;<br /> background: #ecf0f1;<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> margin: 0;<br /> padding: 0 5px;<br /> position: relative;<br /> list-style-type: none;<br /> line-height: 10px;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> z-index: 11;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane::before, .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> display: block;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 35px;<br /> left: 0;<br /> right: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 1px;<br /> background: #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> top: 71px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> -ms-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group::after {<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 1px;<br /> background: #d7e0e2;<br /> margin: 0 5px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> vertical-align: top;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:last-child::after {<br /> content: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button {<br /> display: block;<br /> position: relative;<br /> width: 35px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> padding: 1px 6px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 1px;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> background: none;<br /> vertical-align: middle;<br /> -webkit-transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-textual-button {<br /> width: auto;<br /> line-height: 35px;<br /> -webkit-user-select: none;<br /> -moz-user-select: none;<br /> -ms-user-select: none;<br /> user-select: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable button:not(.trumbowyg-not-disable):not(.trumbowyg-active),<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-disable, .trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-not-disable):not(.trumbowyg-viewHTML-button) {<br /> opacity: 0.2;<br /> cursor: default;<br /> pointer-events: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable .trumbowyg-button-group::before, .trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group::before {<br /> background: #e3e9eb;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-active {<br /> background-color: #fff;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown::after {<br /> display: block;<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 27px;<br /> right: 3px;<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> border: 3px solid transparent;<br /> border-top-color: #555;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown.trumbowyg-textual-button {<br /> padding-left: 10px !important;<br /> padding-right: 18px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown.trumbowyg-textual-button::after {<br /> top: 17px;<br /> right: 7px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-right {<br /> margin-left: auto;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown {<br /> max-width: 300px;<br /> max-height: 250px;<br /> overflow-y: auto;<br /> overflow-x: hidden;<br /> white-space: nowrap;<br /> border: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> padding: 5px 0;<br /> border-top: none;<br /> background: #fff;<br /> color: #222;<br /> margin-left: -1px;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 0 2px 3px;<br /> z-index: 12;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button {<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> line-height: 35px;<br /> text-decoration: none;<br /> background: #fff;<br /> padding: 0 20px 0 10px;<br /> color: #222;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> text-align: left;<br /> font-size: 15px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button:hover, .trumbowyg-dropdown button:focus {<br /> background: #ecf0f1;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button svg {<br /> float: left;<br /> margin-right: 14px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /* Modal box */<br /> .trumbowyg-modal {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 50%;<br /> -webkit-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -ms-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -o-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> max-width: 520px;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 350px;<br /> z-index: 12;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 50%;<br /> -webkit-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -ms-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -o-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> max-width: 500px;<br /> width: calc(100% - 20px);<br /> padding-bottom: 45px;<br /> z-index: 1;<br /> background-color: #fff;<br /> text-align: center;<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0 2px 3px;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-title {<br /> font-size: 24px;<br /> font-weight: bold;<br /> margin: 0 0 20px;<br /> padding: 15px 0 13px;<br /> display: block;<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-progress {<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 3px;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 58px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-progress .trumbowyg-progress-bar {<br /> background: #2BC06A;<br /> width: 0;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> -webkit-transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> -o-transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row {<br /> position: relative;<br /> margin: 15px 12px;<br /> border: 1px solid #dedede;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos {<br /> text-align: left;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> width: 150px;<br /> border-right: 1px solid #dedede;<br /> padding: 0 7px;<br /> background-color: #fbfcfc;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> left: 0;<br /> top: 0;<br /> bottom: 0;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label {<br /> color: #69878f;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label span {<br /> display: block;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos .trumbowyg-msg-error {<br /> color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html {<br /> padding: 1px 1px 1px 152px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select {<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select {<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> border: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> padding: 0 7px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:focus {<br /> outline: 1px solid #95a5a6;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:focus {<br /> background: #fbfcfc;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input[type=checkbox] {<br /> width: 16px;<br /> height: 16px;<br /> padding: 0;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html-with-checkbox {<br /> text-align: left;<br /> padding: 3px 1px 1px 3px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error select, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error textarea {<br /> outline: 1px solid #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error .trumbowyg-input-infos label span:first-child {<br /> margin-top: -27px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .error {<br /> margin-top: 25px;<br /> display: block;<br /> color: red;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> bottom: 10px;<br /> right: 0;<br /> text-decoration: none;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 100px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> line-height: 33px;<br /> margin: 0 10px;<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif;<br /> font-size: 16px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit {<br /> right: 110px;<br /> background: #2bc06a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:focus {<br /> background: #40d47e;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:active {<br /> background: #25a25a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset {<br /> color: #555;<br /> background: #e6e6e6;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:focus {<br /> background: #fbfbfb;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:active {<br /> background: #d5d5d5;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.5);<br /> height: 100%;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> left: 0;<br /> display: none;<br /> top: 0;<br /> z-index: 10;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /**<br /> * Fullscreen<br /> */<br /> body.trumbowyg-body-fullscreen {<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> position: fixed;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> margin: 0;<br /> padding: 0;<br /> z-index: 99999;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen.trumbowyg-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> border: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-editor-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> height: auto !important;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> height: 100% !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-button-group .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: #222;<br /> fill: transparent;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> /*<br /> * For resetCss option<br /> */<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor object,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor embed,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor video,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> max-width: 100%;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor video,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> height: auto;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> cursor: move;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor canvas:focus {<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css {<br /> background: #fefefe !important;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif !important;<br /> font-size: 14px !important;<br /> line-height: 1.45em !important;<br /> color: #333 !important;<br /> font-weight: normal !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css a {<br /> color: #15c !important;<br /> text-decoration: underline !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css div,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css p,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css blockquote {<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: none !important;<br /> box-shadow: none !important;<br /> background: none !important;<br /> margin: 0 !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> line-height: 1.4em !important;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif !important;<br /> font-size: 14px !important;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css iframe,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css object,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css hr {<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css blockquote {<br /> margin-left: 32px !important;<br /> font-style: italic !important;<br /> color: #555 !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul {<br /> list-style: disc !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol {<br /> list-style: decimal !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol {<br /> padding-left: 20px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol ul {<br /> border: none !important;<br /> margin: 2px !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> padding-left: 24px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css hr {<br /> display: block !important;<br /> height: 1px !important;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> border-top: 1px solid #CCC !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h1,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h2,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h3,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h4 {<br /> color: #111 !important;<br /> background: none !important;<br /> margin: 0 !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> font-weight: bold !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h1 {<br /> font-size: 32px !important;<br /> line-height: 38px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 20px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h2 {<br /> font-size: 26px !important;<br /> line-height: 34px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h3 {<br /> font-size: 22px !important;<br /> line-height: 28px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 7px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h4 {<br /> font-size: 16px !important;<br /> line-height: 22px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 7px !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /*<br /> * Dark theme<br /> */<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> background: #222;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box {<br /> border: 1px solid #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> background: #111;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> text-shadow: 0 0 7px #ccc;<br /> }<br /> @media screen and (min-width: 0 \0 ) {<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(20, 20, 20, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> @supports (-ms-accelerator: true) {<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(20, 20, 20, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box svg {<br /> fill: #fff;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane {<br /> background-color: #222;<br /> border-bottom-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane::before, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> background: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty)::after {<br /> background-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty) .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable .trumbowyg-button-group::after {<br /> background-color: #2a2a2a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-active {<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown::after {<br /> border-top-color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty) .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: #ecf0f1;<br /> fill: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown {<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> background: #333;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3) 0 2px 3px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button {<br /> background: #333;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button:focus {<br /> background: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box {<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-title {<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #555;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> background: #3c3c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row {<br /> border-color: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos {<br /> color: #eee;<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> border-right-color: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos span {<br /> color: #eee;<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos span.trumbowyg-msg-error {<br /> color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error input,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error select,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error textarea {<br /> border-color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea {<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> background: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:focus {<br /> border-color: #626262;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:focus {<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit {<br /> background: #1b7943;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:focus {<br /> background: #25a25a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:active {<br /> background: #176437;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset {<br /> background: #333;<br /> color: #ccc;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:focus {<br /> background: #444;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:active {<br /> background: #111;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> background-color: rgba(15, 15, 15, 0.6);<br /> }<br /> @font-face {<br /> font-family: 'Athanasius';<br /> src: url('../fonts/Athanasuis-Plain.ttf') format('ttf');<br /> font-weight: 100;<br /> font-style: normal;<br /> font-display: swap;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .coptic {<br /> font-family: 'Athanasius', serif;<br /> font-weight: 100;<br /> font-style: normal;<br /> font-size:133%;<br /> }</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Common.css&diff=5400 MediaWiki:Common.css 2026-11-10T16:49:58Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>@import url('https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Calistoga&amp;display=swap');<br /> <br /> /* CSS placed here will be applied to all skins */<br /> .latin {<br /> font-family: &quot;Calistoga&quot;, serif;<br /> font-weight: 400;<br /> font-style: normal;<br /> font-size:133%;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .centeredcells td {<br /> text-align:center;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /**<br /> * Trumbowyg v2.27.3 - A lightweight WYSIWYG editor<br /> * Default stylesheet for Trumbowyg editor<br /> * ------------------------<br /> * @link https://alex-d.github.io/Trumbowyg/<br /> * @license MIT<br /> * @author Alexandre Demode (Alex-D)<br /> * Twitter : @AlexandreDemode<br /> * Website : alex-d.fr<br /> */<br /> <br /> #trumbowyg-icons,<br /> .trumbowyg-icons {<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> visibility: hidden;<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> }<br /> #trumbowyg-icons svg,<br /> .trumbowyg-icons svg {<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box *,<br /> .trumbowyg-box *::before,<br /> .trumbowyg-box *::after,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *::before,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *::after {<br /> -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> -moz-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> box-sizing: border-box;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box svg,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal svg {<br /> width: 17px;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> color: #222;<br /> fill: #222;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-box-orient: vertical;<br /> -webkit-box-direction: normal;<br /> -webkit-flex-direction: column;<br /> -moz-box-orient: vertical;<br /> -moz-box-direction: normal;<br /> -ms-flex-direction: column;<br /> flex-direction: column;<br /> min-height: 300px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> display: block;<br /> -webkit-box-flex: 1;<br /> -webkit-flex: 1;<br /> -moz-box-flex: 1;<br /> -ms-flex: 1;<br /> flex: 1;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> position: relative;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> border: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> min-height: 100%;<br /> margin: 0 auto;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> background: #fefefe;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> position: relative;<br /> -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> -moz-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> box-sizing: border-box;<br /> padding: 20px;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> border-style: none;<br /> resize: none;<br /> outline: none;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> -webkit-user-select: text;<br /> -moz-user-select: text;<br /> -ms-user-select: text;<br /> user-select: text;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box.trumbowyg-autogrow-on-enter,<br /> .trumbowyg-textarea.trumbowyg-autogrow-on-enter {<br /> -webkit-transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> -o-transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> padding: 0;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> outline: none;<br /> padding: 20px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: transparent !important;<br /> text-shadow: 0 0 7px #333;<br /> }<br /> @media screen and (min-width: 0 \0 ) {<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(200, 200, 200, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> @supports (-ms-accelerator: true) {<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(200, 200, 200, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor img,<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor hr {<br /> opacity: 0.2;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> position: relative;<br /> display: block;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> border: none;<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> font-family: &quot;Consolas&quot;, &quot;Courier&quot;, &quot;Courier New&quot;, monospace;<br /> line-height: 18px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-visible .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> height: 1px !important;<br /> width: 25%;<br /> min-height: 0 !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> background: none;<br /> opacity: 0 !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-hidden .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> display: block;<br /> -webkit-box-flex: 1;<br /> -webkit-flex: 1;<br /> -moz-box-flex: 1;<br /> -ms-flex: 1;<br /> flex: 1;<br /> margin-bottom: 1px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-hidden .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> display: none;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> opacity: 0.8;<br /> background: none;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box[contenteditable=true]:empty:not(:focus)::before {<br /> content: attr(placeholder);<br /> color: #999;<br /> pointer-events: none;<br /> white-space: break-spaces;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> -ms-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> min-height: 36px;<br /> background: #ecf0f1;<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> margin: 0;<br /> padding: 0 5px;<br /> position: relative;<br /> list-style-type: none;<br /> line-height: 10px;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> z-index: 11;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane::before, .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> display: block;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 35px;<br /> left: 0;<br /> right: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 1px;<br /> background: #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> top: 71px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> -ms-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group::after {<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 1px;<br /> background: #d7e0e2;<br /> margin: 0 5px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> vertical-align: top;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:last-child::after {<br /> content: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button {<br /> display: block;<br /> position: relative;<br /> width: 35px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> padding: 1px 6px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 1px;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> background: none;<br /> vertical-align: middle;<br /> -webkit-transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-textual-button {<br /> width: auto;<br /> line-height: 35px;<br /> -webkit-user-select: none;<br /> -moz-user-select: none;<br /> -ms-user-select: none;<br /> user-select: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable button:not(.trumbowyg-not-disable):not(.trumbowyg-active),<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-disable, .trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-not-disable):not(.trumbowyg-viewHTML-button) {<br /> opacity: 0.2;<br /> cursor: default;<br /> pointer-events: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable .trumbowyg-button-group::before, .trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group::before {<br /> background: #e3e9eb;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-active {<br /> background-color: #fff;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown::after {<br /> display: block;<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 27px;<br /> right: 3px;<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> border: 3px solid transparent;<br /> border-top-color: #555;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown.trumbowyg-textual-button {<br /> padding-left: 10px !important;<br /> padding-right: 18px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown.trumbowyg-textual-button::after {<br /> top: 17px;<br /> right: 7px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-right {<br /> margin-left: auto;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown {<br /> max-width: 300px;<br /> max-height: 250px;<br /> overflow-y: auto;<br /> overflow-x: hidden;<br /> white-space: nowrap;<br /> border: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> padding: 5px 0;<br /> border-top: none;<br /> background: #fff;<br /> color: #222;<br /> margin-left: -1px;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 0 2px 3px;<br /> z-index: 12;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button {<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> line-height: 35px;<br /> text-decoration: none;<br /> background: #fff;<br /> padding: 0 20px 0 10px;<br /> color: #222;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> text-align: left;<br /> font-size: 15px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button:hover, .trumbowyg-dropdown button:focus {<br /> background: #ecf0f1;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button svg {<br /> float: left;<br /> margin-right: 14px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /* Modal box */<br /> .trumbowyg-modal {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 50%;<br /> -webkit-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -ms-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -o-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> max-width: 520px;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 350px;<br /> z-index: 12;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 50%;<br /> -webkit-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -ms-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -o-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> max-width: 500px;<br /> width: calc(100% - 20px);<br /> padding-bottom: 45px;<br /> z-index: 1;<br /> background-color: #fff;<br /> text-align: center;<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0 2px 3px;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-title {<br /> font-size: 24px;<br /> font-weight: bold;<br /> margin: 0 0 20px;<br /> padding: 15px 0 13px;<br /> display: block;<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-progress {<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 3px;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 58px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-progress .trumbowyg-progress-bar {<br /> background: #2BC06A;<br /> width: 0;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> -webkit-transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> -o-transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row {<br /> position: relative;<br /> margin: 15px 12px;<br /> border: 1px solid #dedede;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos {<br /> text-align: left;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> width: 150px;<br /> border-right: 1px solid #dedede;<br /> padding: 0 7px;<br /> background-color: #fbfcfc;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> left: 0;<br /> top: 0;<br /> bottom: 0;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label {<br /> color: #69878f;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label span {<br /> display: block;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos .trumbowyg-msg-error {<br /> color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html {<br /> padding: 1px 1px 1px 152px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select {<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select {<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> border: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> padding: 0 7px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:focus {<br /> outline: 1px solid #95a5a6;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:focus {<br /> background: #fbfcfc;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input[type=checkbox] {<br /> width: 16px;<br /> height: 16px;<br /> padding: 0;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html-with-checkbox {<br /> text-align: left;<br /> padding: 3px 1px 1px 3px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error select, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error textarea {<br /> outline: 1px solid #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error .trumbowyg-input-infos label span:first-child {<br /> margin-top: -27px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .error {<br /> margin-top: 25px;<br /> display: block;<br /> color: red;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> bottom: 10px;<br /> right: 0;<br /> text-decoration: none;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 100px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> line-height: 33px;<br /> margin: 0 10px;<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif;<br /> font-size: 16px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit {<br /> right: 110px;<br /> background: #2bc06a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:focus {<br /> background: #40d47e;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:active {<br /> background: #25a25a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset {<br /> color: #555;<br /> background: #e6e6e6;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:focus {<br /> background: #fbfbfb;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:active {<br /> background: #d5d5d5;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.5);<br /> height: 100%;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> left: 0;<br /> display: none;<br /> top: 0;<br /> z-index: 10;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /**<br /> * Fullscreen<br /> */<br /> body.trumbowyg-body-fullscreen {<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> position: fixed;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> margin: 0;<br /> padding: 0;<br /> z-index: 99999;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen.trumbowyg-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> border: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-editor-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> height: auto !important;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> height: 100% !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-button-group .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: #222;<br /> fill: transparent;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> /*<br /> * For resetCss option<br /> */<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor object,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor embed,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor video,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> max-width: 100%;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor video,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> height: auto;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> cursor: move;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor canvas:focus {<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css {<br /> background: #fefefe !important;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif !important;<br /> font-size: 14px !important;<br /> line-height: 1.45em !important;<br /> color: #333 !important;<br /> font-weight: normal !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css a {<br /> color: #15c !important;<br /> text-decoration: underline !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css div,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css p,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css blockquote {<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: none !important;<br /> box-shadow: none !important;<br /> background: none !important;<br /> margin: 0 !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> line-height: 1.4em !important;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif !important;<br /> font-size: 14px !important;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css iframe,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css object,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css hr {<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css blockquote {<br /> margin-left: 32px !important;<br /> font-style: italic !important;<br /> color: #555 !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul {<br /> list-style: disc !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol {<br /> list-style: decimal !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol {<br /> padding-left: 20px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol ul {<br /> border: none !important;<br /> margin: 2px !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> padding-left: 24px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css hr {<br /> display: block !important;<br /> height: 1px !important;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> border-top: 1px solid #CCC !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h1,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h2,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h3,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h4 {<br /> color: #111 !important;<br /> background: none !important;<br /> margin: 0 !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> font-weight: bold !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h1 {<br /> font-size: 32px !important;<br /> line-height: 38px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 20px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h2 {<br /> font-size: 26px !important;<br /> line-height: 34px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h3 {<br /> font-size: 22px !important;<br /> line-height: 28px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 7px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h4 {<br /> font-size: 16px !important;<br /> line-height: 22px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 7px !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /*<br /> * Dark theme<br /> */<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> background: #222;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box {<br /> border: 1px solid #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> background: #111;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> text-shadow: 0 0 7px #ccc;<br /> }<br /> @media screen and (min-width: 0 \0 ) {<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(20, 20, 20, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> @supports (-ms-accelerator: true) {<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(20, 20, 20, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box svg {<br /> fill: #fff;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane {<br /> background-color: #222;<br /> border-bottom-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane::before, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> background: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty)::after {<br /> background-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty) .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable .trumbowyg-button-group::after {<br /> background-color: #2a2a2a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-active {<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown::after {<br /> border-top-color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty) .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: #ecf0f1;<br /> fill: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown {<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> background: #333;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3) 0 2px 3px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button {<br /> background: #333;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button:focus {<br /> background: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box {<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-title {<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #555;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> background: #3c3c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row {<br /> border-color: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos {<br /> color: #eee;<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> border-right-color: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos span {<br /> color: #eee;<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos span.trumbowyg-msg-error {<br /> color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error input,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error select,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error textarea {<br /> border-color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea {<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> background: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:focus {<br /> border-color: #626262;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:focus {<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit {<br /> background: #1b7943;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:focus {<br /> background: #25a25a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:active {<br /> background: #176437;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset {<br /> background: #333;<br /> color: #ccc;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:focus {<br /> background: #444;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:active {<br /> background: #111;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> background-color: rgba(15, 15, 15, 0.6);<br /> }<br /> @font-face {<br /> font-family: 'Athanasius';<br /> src: url('../fonts/AthanasiusPlain.woff2') format('woff2'),<br /> url('../fonts/AthanasiusPlain.woff') format('woff');<br /> font-weight: 100;<br /> font-style: normal;<br /> font-display: swap;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .coptic {<br /> font-family: 'Athanasius', serif;<br /> font-weight: 100;<br /> font-style: normal;<br /> font-size:133%;<br /> }</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Common.css&diff=5399 MediaWiki:Common.css 2026-11-10T16:49:16Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>@import url('https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Calistoga&amp;display=swap');<br /> <br /> /* CSS placed here will be applied to all skins */<br /> .latin {<br /> font-family: &quot;Calistoga&quot;, serif;<br /> font-weight: 400;<br /> font-style: normal;<br /> font-size:133%;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .centeredcells td {<br /> text-align:center;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /**<br /> * Trumbowyg v2.27.3 - A lightweight WYSIWYG editor<br /> * Default stylesheet for Trumbowyg editor<br /> * ------------------------<br /> * @link https://alex-d.github.io/Trumbowyg/<br /> * @license MIT<br /> * @author Alexandre Demode (Alex-D)<br /> * Twitter : @AlexandreDemode<br /> * Website : alex-d.fr<br /> */<br /> <br /> #trumbowyg-icons,<br /> .trumbowyg-icons {<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> visibility: hidden;<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> }<br /> #trumbowyg-icons svg,<br /> .trumbowyg-icons svg {<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box *,<br /> .trumbowyg-box *::before,<br /> .trumbowyg-box *::after,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *::before,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *::after {<br /> -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> -moz-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> box-sizing: border-box;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box svg,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal svg {<br /> width: 17px;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> color: #222;<br /> fill: #222;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-box-orient: vertical;<br /> -webkit-box-direction: normal;<br /> -webkit-flex-direction: column;<br /> -moz-box-orient: vertical;<br /> -moz-box-direction: normal;<br /> -ms-flex-direction: column;<br /> flex-direction: column;<br /> min-height: 300px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> display: block;<br /> -webkit-box-flex: 1;<br /> -webkit-flex: 1;<br /> -moz-box-flex: 1;<br /> -ms-flex: 1;<br /> flex: 1;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> position: relative;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> border: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> min-height: 100%;<br /> margin: 0 auto;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> background: #fefefe;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> position: relative;<br /> -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> -moz-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> box-sizing: border-box;<br /> padding: 20px;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> border-style: none;<br /> resize: none;<br /> outline: none;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> -webkit-user-select: text;<br /> -moz-user-select: text;<br /> -ms-user-select: text;<br /> user-select: text;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box.trumbowyg-autogrow-on-enter,<br /> .trumbowyg-textarea.trumbowyg-autogrow-on-enter {<br /> -webkit-transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> -o-transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> padding: 0;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> outline: none;<br /> padding: 20px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: transparent !important;<br /> text-shadow: 0 0 7px #333;<br /> }<br /> @media screen and (min-width: 0 \0 ) {<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(200, 200, 200, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> @supports (-ms-accelerator: true) {<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(200, 200, 200, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor img,<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor hr {<br /> opacity: 0.2;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> position: relative;<br /> display: block;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> border: none;<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> font-family: &quot;Consolas&quot;, &quot;Courier&quot;, &quot;Courier New&quot;, monospace;<br /> line-height: 18px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-visible .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> height: 1px !important;<br /> width: 25%;<br /> min-height: 0 !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> background: none;<br /> opacity: 0 !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-hidden .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> display: block;<br /> -webkit-box-flex: 1;<br /> -webkit-flex: 1;<br /> -moz-box-flex: 1;<br /> -ms-flex: 1;<br /> flex: 1;<br /> margin-bottom: 1px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-hidden .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> display: none;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> opacity: 0.8;<br /> background: none;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box[contenteditable=true]:empty:not(:focus)::before {<br /> content: attr(placeholder);<br /> color: #999;<br /> pointer-events: none;<br /> white-space: break-spaces;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> -ms-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> min-height: 36px;<br /> background: #ecf0f1;<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> margin: 0;<br /> padding: 0 5px;<br /> position: relative;<br /> list-style-type: none;<br /> line-height: 10px;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> z-index: 11;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane::before, .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> display: block;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 35px;<br /> left: 0;<br /> right: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 1px;<br /> background: #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> top: 71px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> -ms-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group::after {<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 1px;<br /> background: #d7e0e2;<br /> margin: 0 5px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> vertical-align: top;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:last-child::after {<br /> content: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button {<br /> display: block;<br /> position: relative;<br /> width: 35px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> padding: 1px 6px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 1px;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> background: none;<br /> vertical-align: middle;<br /> -webkit-transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-textual-button {<br /> width: auto;<br /> line-height: 35px;<br /> -webkit-user-select: none;<br /> -moz-user-select: none;<br /> -ms-user-select: none;<br /> user-select: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable button:not(.trumbowyg-not-disable):not(.trumbowyg-active),<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-disable, .trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-not-disable):not(.trumbowyg-viewHTML-button) {<br /> opacity: 0.2;<br /> cursor: default;<br /> pointer-events: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable .trumbowyg-button-group::before, .trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group::before {<br /> background: #e3e9eb;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-active {<br /> background-color: #fff;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown::after {<br /> display: block;<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 27px;<br /> right: 3px;<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> border: 3px solid transparent;<br /> border-top-color: #555;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown.trumbowyg-textual-button {<br /> padding-left: 10px !important;<br /> padding-right: 18px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown.trumbowyg-textual-button::after {<br /> top: 17px;<br /> right: 7px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-right {<br /> margin-left: auto;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown {<br /> max-width: 300px;<br /> max-height: 250px;<br /> overflow-y: auto;<br /> overflow-x: hidden;<br /> white-space: nowrap;<br /> border: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> padding: 5px 0;<br /> border-top: none;<br /> background: #fff;<br /> color: #222;<br /> margin-left: -1px;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 0 2px 3px;<br /> z-index: 12;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button {<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> line-height: 35px;<br /> text-decoration: none;<br /> background: #fff;<br /> padding: 0 20px 0 10px;<br /> color: #222;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> text-align: left;<br /> font-size: 15px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button:hover, .trumbowyg-dropdown button:focus {<br /> background: #ecf0f1;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button svg {<br /> float: left;<br /> margin-right: 14px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /* Modal box */<br /> .trumbowyg-modal {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 50%;<br /> -webkit-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -ms-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -o-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> max-width: 520px;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 350px;<br /> z-index: 12;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 50%;<br /> -webkit-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -ms-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -o-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> max-width: 500px;<br /> width: calc(100% - 20px);<br /> padding-bottom: 45px;<br /> z-index: 1;<br /> background-color: #fff;<br /> text-align: center;<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0 2px 3px;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-title {<br /> font-size: 24px;<br /> font-weight: bold;<br /> margin: 0 0 20px;<br /> padding: 15px 0 13px;<br /> display: block;<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-progress {<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 3px;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 58px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-progress .trumbowyg-progress-bar {<br /> background: #2BC06A;<br /> width: 0;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> -webkit-transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> -o-transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row {<br /> position: relative;<br /> margin: 15px 12px;<br /> border: 1px solid #dedede;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos {<br /> text-align: left;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> width: 150px;<br /> border-right: 1px solid #dedede;<br /> padding: 0 7px;<br /> background-color: #fbfcfc;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> left: 0;<br /> top: 0;<br /> bottom: 0;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label {<br /> color: #69878f;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label span {<br /> display: block;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos .trumbowyg-msg-error {<br /> color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html {<br /> padding: 1px 1px 1px 152px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select {<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select {<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> border: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> padding: 0 7px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:focus {<br /> outline: 1px solid #95a5a6;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:focus {<br /> background: #fbfcfc;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input[type=checkbox] {<br /> width: 16px;<br /> height: 16px;<br /> padding: 0;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html-with-checkbox {<br /> text-align: left;<br /> padding: 3px 1px 1px 3px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error select, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error textarea {<br /> outline: 1px solid #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error .trumbowyg-input-infos label span:first-child {<br /> margin-top: -27px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .error {<br /> margin-top: 25px;<br /> display: block;<br /> color: red;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> bottom: 10px;<br /> right: 0;<br /> text-decoration: none;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 100px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> line-height: 33px;<br /> margin: 0 10px;<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif;<br /> font-size: 16px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit {<br /> right: 110px;<br /> background: #2bc06a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:focus {<br /> background: #40d47e;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:active {<br /> background: #25a25a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset {<br /> color: #555;<br /> background: #e6e6e6;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:focus {<br /> background: #fbfbfb;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:active {<br /> background: #d5d5d5;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.5);<br /> height: 100%;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> left: 0;<br /> display: none;<br /> top: 0;<br /> z-index: 10;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /**<br /> * Fullscreen<br /> */<br /> body.trumbowyg-body-fullscreen {<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> position: fixed;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> margin: 0;<br /> padding: 0;<br /> z-index: 99999;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen.trumbowyg-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> border: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-editor-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> height: auto !important;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> height: 100% !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-button-group .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: #222;<br /> fill: transparent;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> /*<br /> * For resetCss option<br /> */<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor object,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor embed,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor video,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> max-width: 100%;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor video,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> height: auto;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> cursor: move;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor canvas:focus {<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css {<br /> background: #fefefe !important;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif !important;<br /> font-size: 14px !important;<br /> line-height: 1.45em !important;<br /> color: #333 !important;<br /> font-weight: normal !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css a {<br /> color: #15c !important;<br /> text-decoration: underline !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css div,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css p,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css blockquote {<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: none !important;<br /> box-shadow: none !important;<br /> background: none !important;<br /> margin: 0 !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> line-height: 1.4em !important;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif !important;<br /> font-size: 14px !important;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css iframe,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css object,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css hr {<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css blockquote {<br /> margin-left: 32px !important;<br /> font-style: italic !important;<br /> color: #555 !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul {<br /> list-style: disc !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol {<br /> list-style: decimal !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol {<br /> padding-left: 20px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol ul {<br /> border: none !important;<br /> margin: 2px !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> padding-left: 24px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css hr {<br /> display: block !important;<br /> height: 1px !important;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> border-top: 1px solid #CCC !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h1,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h2,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h3,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h4 {<br /> color: #111 !important;<br /> background: none !important;<br /> margin: 0 !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> font-weight: bold !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h1 {<br /> font-size: 32px !important;<br /> line-height: 38px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 20px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h2 {<br /> font-size: 26px !important;<br /> line-height: 34px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h3 {<br /> font-size: 22px !important;<br /> line-height: 28px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 7px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h4 {<br /> font-size: 16px !important;<br /> line-height: 22px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 7px !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /*<br /> * Dark theme<br /> */<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> background: #222;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box {<br /> border: 1px solid #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> background: #111;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> text-shadow: 0 0 7px #ccc;<br /> }<br /> @media screen and (min-width: 0 \0 ) {<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(20, 20, 20, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> @supports (-ms-accelerator: true) {<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(20, 20, 20, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box svg {<br /> fill: #fff;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane {<br /> background-color: #222;<br /> border-bottom-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane::before, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> background: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty)::after {<br /> background-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty) .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable .trumbowyg-button-group::after {<br /> background-color: #2a2a2a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-active {<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown::after {<br /> border-top-color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty) .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: #ecf0f1;<br /> fill: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown {<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> background: #333;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3) 0 2px 3px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button {<br /> background: #333;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button:focus {<br /> background: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box {<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-title {<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #555;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> background: #3c3c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row {<br /> border-color: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos {<br /> color: #eee;<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> border-right-color: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos span {<br /> color: #eee;<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos span.trumbowyg-msg-error {<br /> color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error input,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error select,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error textarea {<br /> border-color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea {<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> background: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:focus {<br /> border-color: #626262;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:focus {<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit {<br /> background: #1b7943;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:focus {<br /> background: #25a25a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:active {<br /> background: #176437;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset {<br /> background: #333;<br /> color: #ccc;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:focus {<br /> background: #444;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:active {<br /> background: #111;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> background-color: rgba(15, 15, 15, 0.6);<br /> }<br /> @font-face {<br /> font-family: 'Athanasius';<br /> src: url('../fonts/AthanasiusPlain.woff2') format('woff2'),<br /> url('../fonts/AthanasiusPlain.woff') format('woff');<br /> font-weight: 100;<br /> font-style: normal;<br /> font-display: swap;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .coptic {<br /> font-family: 'Athanasius', serif;<br /> font-weight: 400;<br /> font-style: normal;<br /> font-size:133%;<br /> }</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Common.css&diff=5398 MediaWiki:Common.css 2026-11-10T16:45:53Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>@import url('https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Calistoga&amp;display=swap');<br /> <br /> /* CSS placed here will be applied to all skins */<br /> .latin {<br /> font-family: &quot;Calistoga&quot;, serif;<br /> font-weight: 400;<br /> font-style: normal;<br /> font-size:133%;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .centeredcells td {<br /> text-align:center;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /**<br /> * Trumbowyg v2.27.3 - A lightweight WYSIWYG editor<br /> * Default stylesheet for Trumbowyg editor<br /> * ------------------------<br /> * @link https://alex-d.github.io/Trumbowyg/<br /> * @license MIT<br /> * @author Alexandre Demode (Alex-D)<br /> * Twitter : @AlexandreDemode<br /> * Website : alex-d.fr<br /> */<br /> <br /> #trumbowyg-icons,<br /> .trumbowyg-icons {<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> visibility: hidden;<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> }<br /> #trumbowyg-icons svg,<br /> .trumbowyg-icons svg {<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box *,<br /> .trumbowyg-box *::before,<br /> .trumbowyg-box *::after,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *::before,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *::after {<br /> -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> -moz-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> box-sizing: border-box;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box svg,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal svg {<br /> width: 17px;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> color: #222;<br /> fill: #222;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-box-orient: vertical;<br /> -webkit-box-direction: normal;<br /> -webkit-flex-direction: column;<br /> -moz-box-orient: vertical;<br /> -moz-box-direction: normal;<br /> -ms-flex-direction: column;<br /> flex-direction: column;<br /> min-height: 300px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> display: block;<br /> -webkit-box-flex: 1;<br /> -webkit-flex: 1;<br /> -moz-box-flex: 1;<br /> -ms-flex: 1;<br /> flex: 1;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> position: relative;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> border: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> min-height: 100%;<br /> margin: 0 auto;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> background: #fefefe;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> position: relative;<br /> -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> -moz-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> box-sizing: border-box;<br /> padding: 20px;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> border-style: none;<br /> resize: none;<br /> outline: none;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> -webkit-user-select: text;<br /> -moz-user-select: text;<br /> -ms-user-select: text;<br /> user-select: text;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box.trumbowyg-autogrow-on-enter,<br /> .trumbowyg-textarea.trumbowyg-autogrow-on-enter {<br /> -webkit-transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> -o-transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> padding: 0;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> outline: none;<br /> padding: 20px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: transparent !important;<br /> text-shadow: 0 0 7px #333;<br /> }<br /> @media screen and (min-width: 0 \0 ) {<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(200, 200, 200, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> @supports (-ms-accelerator: true) {<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(200, 200, 200, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor img,<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor hr {<br /> opacity: 0.2;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> position: relative;<br /> display: block;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> border: none;<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> font-family: &quot;Consolas&quot;, &quot;Courier&quot;, &quot;Courier New&quot;, monospace;<br /> line-height: 18px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-visible .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> height: 1px !important;<br /> width: 25%;<br /> min-height: 0 !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> background: none;<br /> opacity: 0 !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-hidden .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> display: block;<br /> -webkit-box-flex: 1;<br /> -webkit-flex: 1;<br /> -moz-box-flex: 1;<br /> -ms-flex: 1;<br /> flex: 1;<br /> margin-bottom: 1px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-hidden .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> display: none;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> opacity: 0.8;<br /> background: none;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box[contenteditable=true]:empty:not(:focus)::before {<br /> content: attr(placeholder);<br /> color: #999;<br /> pointer-events: none;<br /> white-space: break-spaces;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> -ms-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> min-height: 36px;<br /> background: #ecf0f1;<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> margin: 0;<br /> padding: 0 5px;<br /> position: relative;<br /> list-style-type: none;<br /> line-height: 10px;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> z-index: 11;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane::before, .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> display: block;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 35px;<br /> left: 0;<br /> right: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 1px;<br /> background: #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> top: 71px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> -ms-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group::after {<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 1px;<br /> background: #d7e0e2;<br /> margin: 0 5px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> vertical-align: top;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:last-child::after {<br /> content: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button {<br /> display: block;<br /> position: relative;<br /> width: 35px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> padding: 1px 6px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 1px;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> background: none;<br /> vertical-align: middle;<br /> -webkit-transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-textual-button {<br /> width: auto;<br /> line-height: 35px;<br /> -webkit-user-select: none;<br /> -moz-user-select: none;<br /> -ms-user-select: none;<br /> user-select: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable button:not(.trumbowyg-not-disable):not(.trumbowyg-active),<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-disable, .trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-not-disable):not(.trumbowyg-viewHTML-button) {<br /> opacity: 0.2;<br /> cursor: default;<br /> pointer-events: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable .trumbowyg-button-group::before, .trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group::before {<br /> background: #e3e9eb;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-active {<br /> background-color: #fff;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown::after {<br /> display: block;<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 27px;<br /> right: 3px;<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> border: 3px solid transparent;<br /> border-top-color: #555;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown.trumbowyg-textual-button {<br /> padding-left: 10px !important;<br /> padding-right: 18px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown.trumbowyg-textual-button::after {<br /> top: 17px;<br /> right: 7px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-right {<br /> margin-left: auto;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown {<br /> max-width: 300px;<br /> max-height: 250px;<br /> overflow-y: auto;<br /> overflow-x: hidden;<br /> white-space: nowrap;<br /> border: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> padding: 5px 0;<br /> border-top: none;<br /> background: #fff;<br /> color: #222;<br /> margin-left: -1px;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 0 2px 3px;<br /> z-index: 12;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button {<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> line-height: 35px;<br /> text-decoration: none;<br /> background: #fff;<br /> padding: 0 20px 0 10px;<br /> color: #222;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> text-align: left;<br /> font-size: 15px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button:hover, .trumbowyg-dropdown button:focus {<br /> background: #ecf0f1;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button svg {<br /> float: left;<br /> margin-right: 14px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /* Modal box */<br /> .trumbowyg-modal {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 50%;<br /> -webkit-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -ms-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -o-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> max-width: 520px;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 350px;<br /> z-index: 12;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 50%;<br /> -webkit-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -ms-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -o-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> max-width: 500px;<br /> width: calc(100% - 20px);<br /> padding-bottom: 45px;<br /> z-index: 1;<br /> background-color: #fff;<br /> text-align: center;<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0 2px 3px;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-title {<br /> font-size: 24px;<br /> font-weight: bold;<br /> margin: 0 0 20px;<br /> padding: 15px 0 13px;<br /> display: block;<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-progress {<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 3px;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 58px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-progress .trumbowyg-progress-bar {<br /> background: #2BC06A;<br /> width: 0;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> -webkit-transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> -o-transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row {<br /> position: relative;<br /> margin: 15px 12px;<br /> border: 1px solid #dedede;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos {<br /> text-align: left;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> width: 150px;<br /> border-right: 1px solid #dedede;<br /> padding: 0 7px;<br /> background-color: #fbfcfc;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> left: 0;<br /> top: 0;<br /> bottom: 0;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label {<br /> color: #69878f;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label span {<br /> display: block;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos .trumbowyg-msg-error {<br /> color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html {<br /> padding: 1px 1px 1px 152px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select {<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select {<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> border: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> padding: 0 7px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:focus {<br /> outline: 1px solid #95a5a6;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:focus {<br /> background: #fbfcfc;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input[type=checkbox] {<br /> width: 16px;<br /> height: 16px;<br /> padding: 0;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html-with-checkbox {<br /> text-align: left;<br /> padding: 3px 1px 1px 3px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error select, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error textarea {<br /> outline: 1px solid #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error .trumbowyg-input-infos label span:first-child {<br /> margin-top: -27px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .error {<br /> margin-top: 25px;<br /> display: block;<br /> color: red;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> bottom: 10px;<br /> right: 0;<br /> text-decoration: none;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 100px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> line-height: 33px;<br /> margin: 0 10px;<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif;<br /> font-size: 16px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit {<br /> right: 110px;<br /> background: #2bc06a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:focus {<br /> background: #40d47e;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:active {<br /> background: #25a25a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset {<br /> color: #555;<br /> background: #e6e6e6;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:focus {<br /> background: #fbfbfb;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:active {<br /> background: #d5d5d5;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.5);<br /> height: 100%;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> left: 0;<br /> display: none;<br /> top: 0;<br /> z-index: 10;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /**<br /> * Fullscreen<br /> */<br /> body.trumbowyg-body-fullscreen {<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> position: fixed;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> margin: 0;<br /> padding: 0;<br /> z-index: 99999;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen.trumbowyg-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> border: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-editor-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> height: auto !important;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> height: 100% !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-button-group .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: #222;<br /> fill: transparent;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> /*<br /> * For resetCss option<br /> */<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor object,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor embed,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor video,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> max-width: 100%;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor video,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> height: auto;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> cursor: move;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor canvas:focus {<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css {<br /> background: #fefefe !important;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif !important;<br /> font-size: 14px !important;<br /> line-height: 1.45em !important;<br /> color: #333 !important;<br /> font-weight: normal !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css a {<br /> color: #15c !important;<br /> text-decoration: underline !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css div,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css p,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css blockquote {<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: none !important;<br /> box-shadow: none !important;<br /> background: none !important;<br /> margin: 0 !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> line-height: 1.4em !important;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif !important;<br /> font-size: 14px !important;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css iframe,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css object,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css hr {<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css blockquote {<br /> margin-left: 32px !important;<br /> font-style: italic !important;<br /> color: #555 !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul {<br /> list-style: disc !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol {<br /> list-style: decimal !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol {<br /> padding-left: 20px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol ul {<br /> border: none !important;<br /> margin: 2px !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> padding-left: 24px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css hr {<br /> display: block !important;<br /> height: 1px !important;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> border-top: 1px solid #CCC !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h1,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h2,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h3,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h4 {<br /> color: #111 !important;<br /> background: none !important;<br /> margin: 0 !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> font-weight: bold !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h1 {<br /> font-size: 32px !important;<br /> line-height: 38px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 20px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h2 {<br /> font-size: 26px !important;<br /> line-height: 34px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h3 {<br /> font-size: 22px !important;<br /> line-height: 28px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 7px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h4 {<br /> font-size: 16px !important;<br /> line-height: 22px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 7px !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /*<br /> * Dark theme<br /> */<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> background: #222;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box {<br /> border: 1px solid #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> background: #111;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> text-shadow: 0 0 7px #ccc;<br /> }<br /> @media screen and (min-width: 0 \0 ) {<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(20, 20, 20, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> @supports (-ms-accelerator: true) {<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(20, 20, 20, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box svg {<br /> fill: #fff;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane {<br /> background-color: #222;<br /> border-bottom-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane::before, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> background: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty)::after {<br /> background-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty) .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable .trumbowyg-button-group::after {<br /> background-color: #2a2a2a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-active {<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown::after {<br /> border-top-color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty) .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: #ecf0f1;<br /> fill: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown {<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> background: #333;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3) 0 2px 3px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button {<br /> background: #333;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button:focus {<br /> background: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box {<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-title {<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #555;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> background: #3c3c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row {<br /> border-color: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos {<br /> color: #eee;<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> border-right-color: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos span {<br /> color: #eee;<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos span.trumbowyg-msg-error {<br /> color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error input,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error select,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error textarea {<br /> border-color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea {<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> background: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:focus {<br /> border-color: #626262;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:focus {<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit {<br /> background: #1b7943;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:focus {<br /> background: #25a25a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:active {<br /> background: #176437;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset {<br /> background: #333;<br /> color: #ccc;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:focus {<br /> background: #444;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:active {<br /> background: #111;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> background-color: rgba(15, 15, 15, 0.6);<br /> }<br /> @font-face {<br /> font-family: 'Athanasius';<br /> src: url('../fonts/AthanasiusPlainA.woff2') format('woff2'),<br /> url('../fonts/AthanasiusPlainA.woff') format('woff');<br /> font-weight: 100;<br /> font-style: normal;<br /> font-display: swap;<br /> }<br /> <br /> <br /> .coptic {<br /> font-family: 'Athanasius';<br /> font-size:125%;<br /> }</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Common.css&diff=5397 MediaWiki:Common.css 2026-11-10T16:40:31Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>@import url('https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Calistoga&amp;display=swap');<br /> <br /> /* CSS placed here will be applied to all skins */<br /> .latin {<br /> font-family: &quot;Calistoga&quot;, serif;<br /> font-weight: 400;<br /> font-style: normal;<br /> font-size:133%;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .centeredcells td {<br /> text-align:center;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /**<br /> * Trumbowyg v2.27.3 - A lightweight WYSIWYG editor<br /> * Default stylesheet for Trumbowyg editor<br /> * ------------------------<br /> * @link https://alex-d.github.io/Trumbowyg/<br /> * @license MIT<br /> * @author Alexandre Demode (Alex-D)<br /> * Twitter : @AlexandreDemode<br /> * Website : alex-d.fr<br /> */<br /> <br /> #trumbowyg-icons,<br /> .trumbowyg-icons {<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> visibility: hidden;<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> }<br /> #trumbowyg-icons svg,<br /> .trumbowyg-icons svg {<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box *,<br /> .trumbowyg-box *::before,<br /> .trumbowyg-box *::after,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *::before,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *::after {<br /> -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> -moz-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> box-sizing: border-box;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box svg,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal svg {<br /> width: 17px;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> color: #222;<br /> fill: #222;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-box-orient: vertical;<br /> -webkit-box-direction: normal;<br /> -webkit-flex-direction: column;<br /> -moz-box-orient: vertical;<br /> -moz-box-direction: normal;<br /> -ms-flex-direction: column;<br /> flex-direction: column;<br /> min-height: 300px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> display: block;<br /> -webkit-box-flex: 1;<br /> -webkit-flex: 1;<br /> -moz-box-flex: 1;<br /> -ms-flex: 1;<br /> flex: 1;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> position: relative;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> border: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> min-height: 100%;<br /> margin: 0 auto;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> background: #fefefe;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> position: relative;<br /> -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> -moz-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> box-sizing: border-box;<br /> padding: 20px;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> border-style: none;<br /> resize: none;<br /> outline: none;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> -webkit-user-select: text;<br /> -moz-user-select: text;<br /> -ms-user-select: text;<br /> user-select: text;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box.trumbowyg-autogrow-on-enter,<br /> .trumbowyg-textarea.trumbowyg-autogrow-on-enter {<br /> -webkit-transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> -o-transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> padding: 0;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> outline: none;<br /> padding: 20px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: transparent !important;<br /> text-shadow: 0 0 7px #333;<br /> }<br /> @media screen and (min-width: 0 \0 ) {<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(200, 200, 200, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> @supports (-ms-accelerator: true) {<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(200, 200, 200, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor img,<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor hr {<br /> opacity: 0.2;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> position: relative;<br /> display: block;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> border: none;<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> font-family: &quot;Consolas&quot;, &quot;Courier&quot;, &quot;Courier New&quot;, monospace;<br /> line-height: 18px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-visible .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> height: 1px !important;<br /> width: 25%;<br /> min-height: 0 !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> background: none;<br /> opacity: 0 !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-hidden .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> display: block;<br /> -webkit-box-flex: 1;<br /> -webkit-flex: 1;<br /> -moz-box-flex: 1;<br /> -ms-flex: 1;<br /> flex: 1;<br /> margin-bottom: 1px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-hidden .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> display: none;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> opacity: 0.8;<br /> background: none;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box[contenteditable=true]:empty:not(:focus)::before {<br /> content: attr(placeholder);<br /> color: #999;<br /> pointer-events: none;<br /> white-space: break-spaces;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> -ms-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> min-height: 36px;<br /> background: #ecf0f1;<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> margin: 0;<br /> padding: 0 5px;<br /> position: relative;<br /> list-style-type: none;<br /> line-height: 10px;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> z-index: 11;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane::before, .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> display: block;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 35px;<br /> left: 0;<br /> right: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 1px;<br /> background: #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> top: 71px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> -ms-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group::after {<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 1px;<br /> background: #d7e0e2;<br /> margin: 0 5px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> vertical-align: top;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:last-child::after {<br /> content: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button {<br /> display: block;<br /> position: relative;<br /> width: 35px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> padding: 1px 6px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 1px;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> background: none;<br /> vertical-align: middle;<br /> -webkit-transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-textual-button {<br /> width: auto;<br /> line-height: 35px;<br /> -webkit-user-select: none;<br /> -moz-user-select: none;<br /> -ms-user-select: none;<br /> user-select: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable button:not(.trumbowyg-not-disable):not(.trumbowyg-active),<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-disable, .trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-not-disable):not(.trumbowyg-viewHTML-button) {<br /> opacity: 0.2;<br /> cursor: default;<br /> pointer-events: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable .trumbowyg-button-group::before, .trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group::before {<br /> background: #e3e9eb;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-active {<br /> background-color: #fff;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown::after {<br /> display: block;<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 27px;<br /> right: 3px;<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> border: 3px solid transparent;<br /> border-top-color: #555;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown.trumbowyg-textual-button {<br /> padding-left: 10px !important;<br /> padding-right: 18px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown.trumbowyg-textual-button::after {<br /> top: 17px;<br /> right: 7px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-right {<br /> margin-left: auto;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown {<br /> max-width: 300px;<br /> max-height: 250px;<br /> overflow-y: auto;<br /> overflow-x: hidden;<br /> white-space: nowrap;<br /> border: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> padding: 5px 0;<br /> border-top: none;<br /> background: #fff;<br /> color: #222;<br /> margin-left: -1px;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 0 2px 3px;<br /> z-index: 12;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button {<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> line-height: 35px;<br /> text-decoration: none;<br /> background: #fff;<br /> padding: 0 20px 0 10px;<br /> color: #222;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> text-align: left;<br /> font-size: 15px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button:hover, .trumbowyg-dropdown button:focus {<br /> background: #ecf0f1;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button svg {<br /> float: left;<br /> margin-right: 14px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /* Modal box */<br /> .trumbowyg-modal {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 50%;<br /> -webkit-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -ms-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -o-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> max-width: 520px;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 350px;<br /> z-index: 12;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 50%;<br /> -webkit-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -ms-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -o-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> max-width: 500px;<br /> width: calc(100% - 20px);<br /> padding-bottom: 45px;<br /> z-index: 1;<br /> background-color: #fff;<br /> text-align: center;<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0 2px 3px;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-title {<br /> font-size: 24px;<br /> font-weight: bold;<br /> margin: 0 0 20px;<br /> padding: 15px 0 13px;<br /> display: block;<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-progress {<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 3px;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 58px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-progress .trumbowyg-progress-bar {<br /> background: #2BC06A;<br /> width: 0;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> -webkit-transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> -o-transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row {<br /> position: relative;<br /> margin: 15px 12px;<br /> border: 1px solid #dedede;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos {<br /> text-align: left;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> width: 150px;<br /> border-right: 1px solid #dedede;<br /> padding: 0 7px;<br /> background-color: #fbfcfc;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> left: 0;<br /> top: 0;<br /> bottom: 0;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label {<br /> color: #69878f;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label span {<br /> display: block;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos .trumbowyg-msg-error {<br /> color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html {<br /> padding: 1px 1px 1px 152px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select {<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select {<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> border: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> padding: 0 7px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:focus {<br /> outline: 1px solid #95a5a6;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:focus {<br /> background: #fbfcfc;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input[type=checkbox] {<br /> width: 16px;<br /> height: 16px;<br /> padding: 0;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html-with-checkbox {<br /> text-align: left;<br /> padding: 3px 1px 1px 3px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error select, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error textarea {<br /> outline: 1px solid #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error .trumbowyg-input-infos label span:first-child {<br /> margin-top: -27px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .error {<br /> margin-top: 25px;<br /> display: block;<br /> color: red;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> bottom: 10px;<br /> right: 0;<br /> text-decoration: none;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 100px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> line-height: 33px;<br /> margin: 0 10px;<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif;<br /> font-size: 16px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit {<br /> right: 110px;<br /> background: #2bc06a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:focus {<br /> background: #40d47e;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:active {<br /> background: #25a25a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset {<br /> color: #555;<br /> background: #e6e6e6;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:focus {<br /> background: #fbfbfb;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:active {<br /> background: #d5d5d5;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.5);<br /> height: 100%;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> left: 0;<br /> display: none;<br /> top: 0;<br /> z-index: 10;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /**<br /> * Fullscreen<br /> */<br /> body.trumbowyg-body-fullscreen {<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> position: fixed;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> margin: 0;<br /> padding: 0;<br /> z-index: 99999;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen.trumbowyg-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> border: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-editor-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> height: auto !important;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> height: 100% !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-button-group .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: #222;<br /> fill: transparent;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> /*<br /> * For resetCss option<br /> */<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor object,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor embed,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor video,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> max-width: 100%;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor video,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> height: auto;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> cursor: move;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor canvas:focus {<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css {<br /> background: #fefefe !important;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif !important;<br /> font-size: 14px !important;<br /> line-height: 1.45em !important;<br /> color: #333 !important;<br /> font-weight: normal !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css a {<br /> color: #15c !important;<br /> text-decoration: underline !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css div,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css p,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css blockquote {<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: none !important;<br /> box-shadow: none !important;<br /> background: none !important;<br /> margin: 0 !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> line-height: 1.4em !important;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif !important;<br /> font-size: 14px !important;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css iframe,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css object,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css hr {<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css blockquote {<br /> margin-left: 32px !important;<br /> font-style: italic !important;<br /> color: #555 !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul {<br /> list-style: disc !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol {<br /> list-style: decimal !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol {<br /> padding-left: 20px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol ul {<br /> border: none !important;<br /> margin: 2px !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> padding-left: 24px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css hr {<br /> display: block !important;<br /> height: 1px !important;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> border-top: 1px solid #CCC !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h1,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h2,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h3,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h4 {<br /> color: #111 !important;<br /> background: none !important;<br /> margin: 0 !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> font-weight: bold !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h1 {<br /> font-size: 32px !important;<br /> line-height: 38px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 20px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h2 {<br /> font-size: 26px !important;<br /> line-height: 34px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h3 {<br /> font-size: 22px !important;<br /> line-height: 28px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 7px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h4 {<br /> font-size: 16px !important;<br /> line-height: 22px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 7px !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /*<br /> * Dark theme<br /> */<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> background: #222;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box {<br /> border: 1px solid #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> background: #111;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> text-shadow: 0 0 7px #ccc;<br /> }<br /> @media screen and (min-width: 0 \0 ) {<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(20, 20, 20, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> @supports (-ms-accelerator: true) {<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(20, 20, 20, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box svg {<br /> fill: #fff;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane {<br /> background-color: #222;<br /> border-bottom-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane::before, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> background: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty)::after {<br /> background-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty) .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable .trumbowyg-button-group::after {<br /> background-color: #2a2a2a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-active {<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown::after {<br /> border-top-color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty) .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: #ecf0f1;<br /> fill: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown {<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> background: #333;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: 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.trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:focus {<br /> background: #444;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:active {<br /> background: #111;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> background-color: rgba(15, 15, 15, 0.6);<br /> }<br /> @font-face {<br /> font-family: 'Athanasius';<br /> src: url('../fonts/AthanasiusPlain.woff2') format('woff2'),<br /> url('../fonts/AthanasiusPlain.woff') format('woff');<br /> font-weight: 100;<br /> font-style: normal;<br /> font-display: swap;<br /> }<br /> <br /> <br /> .coptic {<br /> font-family: 'Athanasius';<br /> font-size:125%;<br /> }</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Grammaire_%C3%89gyptienne/CHAPITRE_V&diff=5396 Grammaire Égyptienne/CHAPITRE V 2026-11-10T16:35:26Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>{| width=&quot;100%&quot; <br /> |-<br /> ! colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; |<br /> [[../]]<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:left;width:33%;&quot;|<br /> [[../CHAPITRE IV/]] ⇐<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:center;width:33%&quot; |<br /> '''{{SUBPAGENAME}}'''<br /> | style=&quot;text-align:right;width:33%;&quot;|<br /> ⇒ [[../CHAPITRE VI/]]<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| width=&quot;100%&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; class=&quot;padding1em&quot;<br /> !Français<br /> !Português<br /> |-<br /> | style=&quot;width:50%&quot; |<br /> &lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;<br /> CHAPITRE V<br /> <br /> DES NOMS PROPRES ET DE LEURS DÉTERMINATIFS. <br /> <br /> ----<br /> &lt;/div&gt;<br /> |<br /> &lt;div style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;<br /> CAPÍTULO V<br /> <br /> NOMES PRÓPRIOS E SEUS DETERMINATIVOS.<br /> <br /> ----<br /> &lt;/div&gt;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> 111. Les noms propres véritablement égyptiens, c’est-à-dire tirés du fond même de la langue, étaient tous significatifs; aussi se composaient-ils de deux parties bien distinctes : <br /> <br /> 1º Des signes ou groupes, soit phonétiques , soit symboliques ou même figuratifs, qui constituent le nom lui-même; <br /> <br /> 2º D’un caractère déterminatif du genre auquel appartient l'espèce de l’individu désigné par le nom propre. <br /> |<br /> 111. Os nomes próprios verdadeiramente egípcios, isto é, retirados da base da língua, eram todos significativos; eles também consistiam em duas partes muito distintas:<br /> <br /> 1º Sinais ou grupos, fonéticos, simbólicos ou mesmo figurativos, que constituem o próprio nome;<br /> <br /> 2º Um sinal determinativo do gênero ao qual pertence a espécie do indivíduo designado pelo nome próprio.<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> § 1er. NOMS PROPRES DES DIVINITÉS<br /> <br /> A. Noms propres des dieux.<br /> <br /> <br /> 112. Les noms propres des divinités mâles se terminent habituellement par l’un des signes déterminatifs génériques qui sont affectés exclusivement à cette classe de noms. Ces déterminatifs sont: <br /> <br /> 1º Le caractère figuratif &lt;hiero&gt;A40&lt;/hiero&gt; linéaire [[File:2024-07-19_10-11.png]], hiératique [[File:2024-07-19_10-12.png]], qui représente un personnage barbu, assis à la manière égyptienne, et dans un état complet de repos: ce signe détermine, soit les noms propres phonétiques:<br /> |<br /> § 1º. NOMES PRÓPRIOS DAS DIVINDADES<br /> <br /> A. Nomes próprios dos deuses.<br /> <br /> <br /> 112. Os nomes próprios das divindades masculinas geralmente terminam em um dos sinais determinativos genéricos atribuídos exclusivamente a esta classe de nomes. Esses determinativos são:<br /> <br /> 1º O sinal figurativo &lt;hiero&gt;A40&lt;/hiero&gt;, linear [[File:2024-07-19_10-11.png]], hierático [[File:2024-07-19_10-12.png]], que representa um personagem barbudo, sentado à maneira egípcia e em completo estado de repouso: este sinal determina os nomes próprios fonéticos:<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |<br /> {| style=&quot;margin:auto;&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;i-Y5:n-A40&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-19_14-56.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲁⲙⲛ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲁⲙⲟⲩⲛ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Ammon.<br /> |Ámon.<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;p:t-H-A40&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-19_14-58.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲡⲧϩ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲡⲧⲁϩ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Phtah.<br /> |Ptah.<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;Y5:n-U33-A40&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-19_14-59.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;Ⲙⲛⲑ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;Ⲙⲟⲛⲑ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Month.<br /> |Montu (Monte, Montju, Mente, Mentu).<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;Y5:n:T-w-A40&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-19_15-03.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;Ⲙⲛⲑⲟⲩ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;Ⲙⲟⲛⲑ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Month.<br /> |Montu (Monte, Montju, Mente, Mentu).<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;Y5:n-i-A40&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-19_15-04.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;Ⲙⲛⲟ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> | «<br /> |Mnévis.<br /> |Mnévis.<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;s-k:r-A40&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-19_15-06.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;Ⲥⲕⲣ.ⲥϭⲣ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> | «<br /> |Sakr, Sokar.<br /> |Sokar, Seker.<br /> |}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> Soit les noms propres exprimés symboliquement, comme:<br /> |<br /> Seja os nomes próprios expressos simbolicamente, como: <br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |<br /> {| style=&quot;margin:auto;&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;S40-D4:A40&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-19_21-49.png]]<br /> |(&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲟⲩⲥⲓⲣⲉ&lt;/span&gt;),<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;Ⲟⲩⲥⲓⲣⲉ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Osiris.<br /> |Osíris.<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;G5-Z1-A40&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-19_21-51.png]]<br /> |(&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ϩⲱⲣ&lt;/span&gt;),<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ϩⲱⲣ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Horus.<br /> |Hórus.<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;N6:Z1-A40&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-19_21-52.png]]<br /> |(&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲡⲣⲏ&lt;/span&gt;),<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;Ⲣⲏ&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;Ⲡⲣⲏ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Rà, Phré<br /> |Rá<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;N31-A40&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-19_21-54.png]]<br /> |(&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ϩⲱⲣ&lt;/span&gt;),<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ϩⲱⲣ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Horus.<br /> |Hórus.<br /> |}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> Le caractère tropique &lt;hiero&gt;R8&lt;/hiero&gt;, linéaire [[File:2024-07-23_10-20.png]], (hiératique [[File:2024-07-23_10-20_1.png]]) initiale du mot &lt;hiero&gt;R8-t:r&lt;/hiero&gt; qui répond au copte ⲛⲟⲩⲧⲉ, Dieu. Ce caractère est remplacé par le signe [[File:2024-07-23_10-21.png]] dans les textes hiératiques:<br /> |<br /> O signo trópico &lt;hiero&gt;R8&lt;/hiero&gt;, linear [[File:2024-07-23_10-20.png]], (hierático [[File:2024-07-23_10-20_1.png]]) initial da palavra &lt;hiero&gt;R8-t:r&lt;/hiero&gt; que corresponde ao copta ⲛⲟⲩⲧⲉ, deus. Este signo é substituído pelo sinal [[File:2024-07-23_10-21.png]] nos textos hieráticos:<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |<br /> {| style=&quot;margin:auto;&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;D4:Q1*R8&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-23_10-24.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲟⲩⲥⲣⲏ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲟⲩⲥⲓⲣⲉ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Osiris.<br /> |Osíris.<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;s-k:r:y-R8&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-23_10-25.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲥϭⲣⲓ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> | «<br /> |Sakri, Sochari<br /> |Sokar, Seker.<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;i-m-z:T-R8&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-23_10-26.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲁⲙⲥⲑ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> | «<br /> |Amsèth.<br /> |Amset, Omset (?)<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;L1:r-i-R8&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |[[File:2024-07-23_11-50.png]]<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲑⲣⲉ&lt;/span&gt;, <br /> | «<br /> |Thré, Thoré.<br /> |Khepri (Khepera, Kheper, Khepra, Chepri) <br /> |}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> Souvent même les noms propres des dieux se trouvent déterminés dans les textes hiéroglyphiques par ces deux caractères à la fois, ce qui constitue alors un déterminatif tropico-figuratif; exemples: <br /> <br /> |<br /> Muitas vezes até os nomes próprios dos deuses são encontrados determinados em textos hieroglíficos por esses dois caracteres ao mesmo tempo, o que constitui então um determinativo trópico-figurativo; exemplos:<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |<br /> {| style=&quot;margin:auto;&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;t:U15-m-w-A40-R8&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲧⲙⲟⲩ&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲑⲙⲟⲩ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Thmou, Athmou.<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;z:k:r:y-A40-R8&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲥϭⲣⲓ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Sakri, Socharis<br /> |Sokar, Seker.<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;s*b:k-A40-R8&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲥⲃϭ&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲥⲃⲕ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Sévék<br /> |Sobek (?)<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;n-n:p*w-A40-R8&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |&lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲁⲛⲡⲟⲩ&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span class=&quot;coptic&quot;&gt;ⲁⲛⲟⲩⲡ&lt;/span&gt;,<br /> |Anubis.<br /> |Anúbis.<br /> |}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> Il importe d’observer que le caractère déterminatif figuratif de genre &lt;hiero&gt;A40&lt;/hiero&gt; (Dieu), est susceptible de se combiner avec des signes tropiques exprimant des attributs; il résulte de cette alliance, des signes complexes tels que &lt;hiero&gt;A42&lt;/hiero&gt; et &lt;hiero&gt;A47&lt;/hiero&gt;, lesquels, bien que simples déterminatifs génériques des noms propres des divinités mâles, emportent en même temps avec eux l'idée d'une qualité inhérente au dieu et qu'exprime le caractère additionnel; ainsi on devrait rigoureusement traduire les noms propres:<br /> |<br /> É importante observar que o sinal figurativo determinativo de gênero &lt;hiero&gt;A40&lt;/hiero&gt; (eeus), é capaz de se combinar com signos trópicos que expressam atributos; resultam desta aliança signos complexos como &lt;hiero&gt;A42&lt;/hiero&gt; e &lt;hiero&gt;A47&lt;/hiero&gt;, que, embora sejam simples determinantes genéricos dos nomes próprios das divindades masculinas, ao mesmo tempo carregam consigo a ideia de uma qualidade inerente ao deus e expressa pela marca adicional; portanto, devemos traduzir rigorosamente os nomes próprios:<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |<br /> {| style=&quot;margin:auto;&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |[[File:2024-07-23_12-20.png]]<br /> |ⲁⲙⲛ̄-ⲛⲧⲣ-ⲣⲱϧⲓ,<br /> |par<br /> |Ammon-Dieu pur.<br /> |por<br /> |Ámon-Deus puro.<br /> |-<br /> |[[File:2024-07-23_12-22.png]]<br /> |ϩⲁⲡⲓ-ⲛⲧⲣ-ⲱⲛϧ,<br /> |par<br /> |Hapi-Dieu-vivant.<br /> |por<br /> |Hapi-Deus-vivo.<br /> |-<br /> |[[File:2024-07-23_12-22_1.png]]<br /> |ⲡⲧⲁϩ-ⲛⲧⲣ-ⲣⲱϧⲓ,<br /> |par<br /> |Phtah-Dieu-pur.<br /> |por<br /> |Ptah-Deus-puro.<br /> |-<br /> |[[File:2024-07-23_12-23.png]]<br /> |ⲁⲛⲡⲟⲩ-ⲛⲧⲣ-ⲱⲛϧ,<br /> |par<br /> |Anubis-Dieu-vivant.<br /> |por<br /> |Anúbis-Deus-vivo.<br /> |}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> Il y a plus: le déterminatif générique &lt;hiero&gt;A40&lt;/hiero&gt; (dieu mâle), devient un véritable déterminatif figuratif du dieu dont il accompagne le nom propre, soit phonétique, soit symbolique, <br /> <br /> <br /> 1º Lorsque le scribe charge cette image de divinité à face humaine, barbue et assise, de la coiffure habituelle ou des insignes ordinaires du dieu exprimé par le nom. Exemples:<br /> |<br /> E mais: o determinativo genérico &lt;hiero&gt;A40&lt;/hiero&gt; (deus masculino) torna-se um verdadeiro determinativo figurativo do deus cujo nome próprio acompanha, seja fonético ou simbólico,<br /> <br /> <br /> 1º Quando o escriba carrega esta imagem de uma divindade com rosto humano, barbada e sentada, com o penteado habitual ou insígnia ordinária do deus expresso pelo nome. Exemplos:<br /> |-<br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |<br /> {| style=&quot;margin:auto;&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;i-Y5:n-C12&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |ⲁⲙⲛ.ⲁⲙⲟⲩⲛ,<br /> |Amoun, Ammon (Zeus), Ἄμμων.<br /> |Ámon (Zeus), Ἄμμων.<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;W25:N1-C18&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |ⲛ̄ⲡⲉ.ⲙ̄ⲫⲉ,<br /> |Emphé (forme de Moui).<br /> |Emphé (?) (forma de Moui).<br /> |-<br /> |[[File:2024-07-23_15-51.png]]<br /> |ⲛ̄ⲡⲉ.ⲙ̄ⲫⲉ,<br /> |Emphé (forme de Moui).<br /> |Emphé (?) (forma de Moui).<br /> |-<br /> |[[File:2024-07-23_15-56.png]]<br /> |ϣⲛⲥ.ϣⲱⲛⲥ,<br /> |Chons, Χωνς, fils ainé d'Ammon (Hercule).<br /> |Consu (Khonsu, Khensu), Quespisiquis, Χωνς, filho mais velho de Ámon (Hércules).<br /> |-<br /> |&lt;hiero&gt;p:t-H-A40&lt;/hiero&gt;<br /> |ⲡⲧϩ.Ⲡⲧⲁϩ,<br /> |Phtah, Φθὰ (Hephæstus).<br /> |Ptah, Φθὰ (Hefesto).<br /> |-<br /> |[[File:2024-07-23_16-00.png]]<br /> |ⲡⲧϩ.Ⲡⲧⲁϩ,<br /> |Phtah, Φθὰ (Vulcain).<br /> |Ptah, Φθὰ (Vulcano).<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> |-<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> | colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_145.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_146.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_147.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_148.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_149.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_150.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_151.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_152.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_153.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_154.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_155.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_156.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_157.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_158.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_159.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_160.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> 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[[File:PJ1135.C45_184.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_185.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_186.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_187.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_188.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_189.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_190.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_191.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_192.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_193.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_194.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_195.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_196.JPG]] <br /> -<br /> [[File:PJ1135.C45_197.JPG]] <br /> |}</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Common.css&diff=5395 MediaWiki:Common.css 2026-11-10T16:30:45Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>@import url('https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Calistoga&amp;display=swap');<br /> <br /> /* CSS placed here will be applied to all skins */<br /> .latin {<br /> font-family: &quot;Calistoga&quot;, serif;<br /> font-weight: 400;<br /> font-style: normal;<br /> font-size:133%;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .centeredcells td {<br /> text-align:center;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /**<br /> * Trumbowyg v2.27.3 - A lightweight WYSIWYG editor<br /> * Default stylesheet for Trumbowyg editor<br /> * ------------------------<br /> * @link https://alex-d.github.io/Trumbowyg/<br /> * @license MIT<br /> * @author Alexandre Demode (Alex-D)<br /> * Twitter : @AlexandreDemode<br /> * Website : alex-d.fr<br /> */<br /> <br /> #trumbowyg-icons,<br /> .trumbowyg-icons {<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> visibility: hidden;<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> }<br /> #trumbowyg-icons svg,<br /> .trumbowyg-icons svg {<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box *,<br /> .trumbowyg-box *::before,<br /> .trumbowyg-box *::after,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *::before,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *::after {<br /> -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> -moz-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> box-sizing: 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0 auto;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> background: #fefefe;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> position: relative;<br /> -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> -moz-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> box-sizing: border-box;<br /> padding: 20px;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> border-style: none;<br /> resize: none;<br /> outline: none;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> -webkit-user-select: text;<br /> -moz-user-select: text;<br /> -ms-user-select: text;<br /> user-select: text;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box.trumbowyg-autogrow-on-enter,<br /> .trumbowyg-textarea.trumbowyg-autogrow-on-enter {<br /> -webkit-transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> -o-transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> padding: 0;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> outline: none;<br /> padding: 20px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: transparent !important;<br /> text-shadow: 0 0 7px #333;<br /> }<br /> @media screen and (min-width: 0 \0 ) {<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(200, 200, 200, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> @supports (-ms-accelerator: true) {<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(200, 200, 200, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor img,<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor hr {<br /> opacity: 0.2;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> position: relative;<br /> display: block;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> border: none;<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> font-family: &quot;Consolas&quot;, &quot;Courier&quot;, &quot;Courier New&quot;, monospace;<br /> line-height: 18px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-visible .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> height: 1px !important;<br /> width: 25%;<br /> min-height: 0 !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> background: none;<br /> opacity: 0 !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-hidden .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> display: block;<br /> -webkit-box-flex: 1;<br /> -webkit-flex: 1;<br /> -moz-box-flex: 1;<br /> -ms-flex: 1;<br /> flex: 1;<br /> margin-bottom: 1px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-hidden .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> display: none;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> opacity: 0.8;<br /> background: none;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box[contenteditable=true]:empty:not(:focus)::before {<br /> content: attr(placeholder);<br /> color: #999;<br /> pointer-events: none;<br /> white-space: break-spaces;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> -ms-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> min-height: 36px;<br /> background: #ecf0f1;<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> margin: 0;<br /> padding: 0 5px;<br /> position: relative;<br /> list-style-type: none;<br /> line-height: 10px;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> z-index: 11;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane::before, .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> display: block;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 35px;<br /> left: 0;<br /> right: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 1px;<br /> background: #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> top: 71px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> -ms-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group::after {<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 1px;<br /> background: #d7e0e2;<br /> margin: 0 5px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> vertical-align: top;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:last-child::after {<br /> content: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button {<br /> display: block;<br /> position: relative;<br /> width: 35px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> padding: 1px 6px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 1px;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> background: none;<br /> vertical-align: middle;<br /> -webkit-transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-textual-button {<br /> width: auto;<br /> line-height: 35px;<br /> -webkit-user-select: none;<br /> -moz-user-select: none;<br /> -ms-user-select: none;<br /> user-select: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable button:not(.trumbowyg-not-disable):not(.trumbowyg-active),<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-disable, .trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-not-disable):not(.trumbowyg-viewHTML-button) {<br /> opacity: 0.2;<br /> cursor: default;<br /> pointer-events: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable .trumbowyg-button-group::before, .trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group::before {<br /> background: #e3e9eb;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-active {<br /> background-color: #fff;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown::after {<br /> display: block;<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 27px;<br /> right: 3px;<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> border: 3px solid transparent;<br /> border-top-color: #555;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown.trumbowyg-textual-button {<br /> padding-left: 10px !important;<br /> padding-right: 18px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown.trumbowyg-textual-button::after {<br /> top: 17px;<br /> right: 7px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-right {<br /> margin-left: auto;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown {<br /> max-width: 300px;<br /> max-height: 250px;<br /> overflow-y: auto;<br /> overflow-x: hidden;<br /> white-space: nowrap;<br /> border: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> padding: 5px 0;<br /> border-top: none;<br /> background: #fff;<br /> color: #222;<br /> margin-left: -1px;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 0 2px 3px;<br /> z-index: 12;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button {<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> line-height: 35px;<br /> text-decoration: none;<br /> background: #fff;<br /> padding: 0 20px 0 10px;<br /> color: #222;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> text-align: left;<br /> font-size: 15px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button:hover, .trumbowyg-dropdown button:focus {<br /> background: #ecf0f1;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button svg {<br /> float: left;<br /> margin-right: 14px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /* Modal box */<br /> .trumbowyg-modal {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 50%;<br /> -webkit-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -ms-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -o-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> max-width: 520px;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 350px;<br /> z-index: 12;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 50%;<br /> -webkit-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -ms-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -o-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> max-width: 500px;<br /> width: calc(100% - 20px);<br /> padding-bottom: 45px;<br /> z-index: 1;<br /> background-color: #fff;<br /> text-align: center;<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0 2px 3px;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-title {<br /> font-size: 24px;<br /> font-weight: bold;<br /> margin: 0 0 20px;<br /> padding: 15px 0 13px;<br /> display: block;<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-progress {<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 3px;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 58px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-progress .trumbowyg-progress-bar {<br /> background: #2BC06A;<br /> width: 0;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> -webkit-transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> -o-transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row {<br /> position: relative;<br /> margin: 15px 12px;<br /> border: 1px solid #dedede;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos {<br /> text-align: left;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> width: 150px;<br /> border-right: 1px solid #dedede;<br /> padding: 0 7px;<br /> background-color: #fbfcfc;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> left: 0;<br /> top: 0;<br /> bottom: 0;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label {<br /> color: #69878f;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label span {<br /> display: block;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos .trumbowyg-msg-error {<br /> color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html {<br /> padding: 1px 1px 1px 152px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select {<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select {<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> border: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> padding: 0 7px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:focus {<br /> outline: 1px solid #95a5a6;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:focus {<br /> background: #fbfcfc;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input[type=checkbox] {<br /> width: 16px;<br /> height: 16px;<br /> padding: 0;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html-with-checkbox {<br /> text-align: left;<br /> padding: 3px 1px 1px 3px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error select, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error textarea {<br /> outline: 1px solid #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error .trumbowyg-input-infos label span:first-child {<br /> margin-top: -27px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .error {<br /> margin-top: 25px;<br /> display: block;<br /> color: red;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> bottom: 10px;<br /> right: 0;<br /> text-decoration: none;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 100px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> line-height: 33px;<br /> margin: 0 10px;<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif;<br /> font-size: 16px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit {<br /> right: 110px;<br /> background: #2bc06a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:focus {<br /> background: #40d47e;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:active {<br /> background: #25a25a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset {<br /> color: #555;<br /> background: #e6e6e6;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:focus {<br /> background: #fbfbfb;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:active {<br /> background: #d5d5d5;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.5);<br /> height: 100%;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> left: 0;<br /> display: none;<br /> top: 0;<br /> z-index: 10;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /**<br /> * Fullscreen<br /> */<br /> body.trumbowyg-body-fullscreen {<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> position: fixed;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> margin: 0;<br /> padding: 0;<br /> z-index: 99999;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen.trumbowyg-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> border: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-editor-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> height: auto !important;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> height: 100% !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-button-group .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: #222;<br /> fill: transparent;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> /*<br /> * For resetCss option<br /> */<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor object,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor embed,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor video,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> max-width: 100%;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor video,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> height: auto;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> cursor: move;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor canvas:focus {<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css {<br /> background: #fefefe !important;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif !important;<br /> font-size: 14px !important;<br /> line-height: 1.45em !important;<br /> color: #333 !important;<br /> font-weight: normal !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css a {<br /> color: #15c !important;<br /> text-decoration: underline !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css div,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css p,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css blockquote {<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: none !important;<br /> box-shadow: none !important;<br /> background: none !important;<br /> margin: 0 !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> line-height: 1.4em !important;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif !important;<br /> font-size: 14px !important;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css iframe,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css object,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css hr {<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css blockquote {<br /> margin-left: 32px !important;<br /> font-style: italic !important;<br /> color: #555 !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul {<br /> list-style: disc !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol {<br /> list-style: decimal !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol {<br /> padding-left: 20px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol ul {<br /> border: none !important;<br /> margin: 2px !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> padding-left: 24px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css hr {<br /> display: block !important;<br /> height: 1px !important;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> border-top: 1px solid #CCC !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h1,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h2,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h3,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h4 {<br /> color: #111 !important;<br /> background: none !important;<br /> margin: 0 !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> font-weight: bold !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h1 {<br /> font-size: 32px !important;<br /> line-height: 38px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 20px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h2 {<br /> font-size: 26px !important;<br /> line-height: 34px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h3 {<br /> font-size: 22px !important;<br /> line-height: 28px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 7px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h4 {<br /> font-size: 16px !important;<br /> line-height: 22px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 7px !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /*<br /> * Dark theme<br /> */<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> background: #222;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box {<br /> border: 1px solid #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> background: #111;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> text-shadow: 0 0 7px #ccc;<br /> }<br /> @media screen and (min-width: 0 \0 ) {<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(20, 20, 20, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> @supports (-ms-accelerator: true) {<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(20, 20, 20, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box svg {<br /> fill: #fff;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane {<br /> background-color: #222;<br /> border-bottom-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane::before, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> background: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty)::after {<br /> background-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty) .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable .trumbowyg-button-group::after {<br /> background-color: #2a2a2a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-active {<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown::after {<br /> border-top-color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty) .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: #ecf0f1;<br /> fill: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown {<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> background: #333;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3) 0 2px 3px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button {<br /> background: #333;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button:focus {<br /> background: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box {<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-title {<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #555;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> background: #3c3c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row {<br /> border-color: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos {<br /> color: #eee;<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> border-right-color: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos span {<br /> color: #eee;<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos span.trumbowyg-msg-error {<br /> color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error input,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error select,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error textarea {<br /> border-color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea {<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> background: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:focus {<br /> border-color: #626262;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:focus {<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit {<br /> background: #1b7943;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:focus {<br /> background: #25a25a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:active {<br /> background: #176437;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset {<br /> background: #333;<br /> color: #ccc;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:focus {<br /> background: #444;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:active {<br /> background: #111;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> background-color: rgba(15, 15, 15, 0.6);<br /> }<br /> /*<br /> @font-face {<br /> font-family: AthanasuisPlain;<br /> src: url(../fonts/Athanasuis-Plain.ttf);<br /> }<br /> */<br /> .coptic {<br /> font-family: 'New Athena Unicode';<br /> font-size:125%;<br /> }</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Common.css&diff=5394 MediaWiki:Common.css 2026-11-10T16:27:42Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>@import url('https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Calistoga&amp;display=swap');<br /> <br /> /* CSS placed here will be applied to all skins */<br /> .latin {<br /> font-family: &quot;Calistoga&quot;, serif;<br /> font-weight: 400;<br /> font-style: normal;<br /> font-size:133%;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .centeredcells td {<br /> text-align:center;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /**<br /> * Trumbowyg v2.27.3 - A lightweight WYSIWYG editor<br /> * Default stylesheet for Trumbowyg editor<br /> * ------------------------<br /> * @link https://alex-d.github.io/Trumbowyg/<br /> * @license MIT<br /> * @author Alexandre Demode (Alex-D)<br /> * Twitter : @AlexandreDemode<br /> * Website : alex-d.fr<br /> */<br /> <br /> #trumbowyg-icons,<br /> .trumbowyg-icons {<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> visibility: hidden;<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> }<br /> #trumbowyg-icons svg,<br /> .trumbowyg-icons svg {<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box *,<br /> .trumbowyg-box *::before,<br /> .trumbowyg-box *::after,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *::before,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *::after {<br /> -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> -moz-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> box-sizing: border-box;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box svg,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal svg {<br /> width: 17px;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> color: #222;<br /> fill: #222;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-box-orient: vertical;<br /> -webkit-box-direction: normal;<br /> -webkit-flex-direction: column;<br /> -moz-box-orient: vertical;<br /> -moz-box-direction: normal;<br /> -ms-flex-direction: column;<br /> flex-direction: column;<br /> min-height: 300px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> display: block;<br /> -webkit-box-flex: 1;<br /> -webkit-flex: 1;<br /> -moz-box-flex: 1;<br /> -ms-flex: 1;<br /> flex: 1;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> position: relative;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> border: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> min-height: 100%;<br /> margin: 0 auto;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> background: #fefefe;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> position: relative;<br /> -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> -moz-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> box-sizing: border-box;<br /> padding: 20px;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> border-style: none;<br /> resize: none;<br /> outline: none;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> -webkit-user-select: text;<br /> -moz-user-select: text;<br /> -ms-user-select: text;<br /> user-select: text;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box.trumbowyg-autogrow-on-enter,<br /> .trumbowyg-textarea.trumbowyg-autogrow-on-enter {<br /> -webkit-transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> -o-transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> padding: 0;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> outline: none;<br /> padding: 20px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: transparent !important;<br /> text-shadow: 0 0 7px #333;<br /> }<br /> @media screen and (min-width: 0 \0 ) {<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(200, 200, 200, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> @supports (-ms-accelerator: true) {<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(200, 200, 200, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor img,<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor hr {<br /> opacity: 0.2;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> position: relative;<br /> display: block;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> border: none;<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> font-family: &quot;Consolas&quot;, &quot;Courier&quot;, &quot;Courier New&quot;, monospace;<br /> line-height: 18px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-visible .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> height: 1px !important;<br /> width: 25%;<br /> min-height: 0 !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> background: none;<br /> opacity: 0 !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-hidden .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> display: block;<br /> -webkit-box-flex: 1;<br /> -webkit-flex: 1;<br /> -moz-box-flex: 1;<br /> -ms-flex: 1;<br /> flex: 1;<br /> margin-bottom: 1px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-hidden .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> display: none;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> opacity: 0.8;<br /> background: none;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box[contenteditable=true]:empty:not(:focus)::before {<br /> content: attr(placeholder);<br /> color: #999;<br /> pointer-events: none;<br /> white-space: break-spaces;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> -ms-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> min-height: 36px;<br /> background: #ecf0f1;<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> margin: 0;<br /> padding: 0 5px;<br /> position: relative;<br /> list-style-type: none;<br /> line-height: 10px;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> z-index: 11;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane::before, .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> display: block;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 35px;<br /> left: 0;<br /> right: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 1px;<br /> background: #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> top: 71px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> -ms-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group::after {<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 1px;<br /> background: #d7e0e2;<br /> margin: 0 5px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> vertical-align: top;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:last-child::after {<br /> content: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button {<br /> display: block;<br /> position: relative;<br /> width: 35px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> padding: 1px 6px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 1px;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> background: none;<br /> vertical-align: middle;<br /> -webkit-transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-textual-button {<br /> width: auto;<br /> line-height: 35px;<br /> -webkit-user-select: none;<br /> -moz-user-select: none;<br /> -ms-user-select: none;<br /> user-select: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable button:not(.trumbowyg-not-disable):not(.trumbowyg-active),<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-disable, .trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-not-disable):not(.trumbowyg-viewHTML-button) {<br /> opacity: 0.2;<br /> cursor: default;<br /> pointer-events: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable .trumbowyg-button-group::before, .trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group::before {<br /> background: #e3e9eb;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-active {<br /> background-color: #fff;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown::after {<br /> display: block;<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 27px;<br /> right: 3px;<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> border: 3px solid transparent;<br /> border-top-color: #555;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown.trumbowyg-textual-button {<br /> padding-left: 10px !important;<br /> padding-right: 18px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown.trumbowyg-textual-button::after {<br /> top: 17px;<br /> right: 7px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-right {<br /> margin-left: auto;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown {<br /> max-width: 300px;<br /> max-height: 250px;<br /> overflow-y: auto;<br /> overflow-x: hidden;<br /> white-space: nowrap;<br /> border: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> padding: 5px 0;<br /> border-top: none;<br /> background: #fff;<br /> color: #222;<br /> margin-left: -1px;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 0 2px 3px;<br /> z-index: 12;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button {<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> line-height: 35px;<br /> text-decoration: none;<br /> background: #fff;<br /> padding: 0 20px 0 10px;<br /> color: #222;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> text-align: left;<br /> font-size: 15px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button:hover, .trumbowyg-dropdown button:focus {<br /> background: #ecf0f1;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button svg {<br /> float: left;<br /> margin-right: 14px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /* Modal box */<br /> .trumbowyg-modal {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 50%;<br /> -webkit-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -ms-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -o-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> max-width: 520px;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 350px;<br /> z-index: 12;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 50%;<br /> -webkit-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -ms-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -o-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> max-width: 500px;<br /> width: calc(100% - 20px);<br /> padding-bottom: 45px;<br /> z-index: 1;<br /> background-color: #fff;<br /> text-align: center;<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0 2px 3px;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-title {<br /> font-size: 24px;<br /> font-weight: bold;<br /> margin: 0 0 20px;<br /> padding: 15px 0 13px;<br /> display: block;<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-progress {<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 3px;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 58px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-progress .trumbowyg-progress-bar {<br /> background: #2BC06A;<br /> width: 0;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> -webkit-transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> -o-transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row {<br /> position: relative;<br /> margin: 15px 12px;<br /> border: 1px solid #dedede;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos {<br /> text-align: left;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> width: 150px;<br /> border-right: 1px solid #dedede;<br /> padding: 0 7px;<br /> background-color: #fbfcfc;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> left: 0;<br /> top: 0;<br /> bottom: 0;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label {<br /> color: #69878f;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label span {<br /> display: block;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos .trumbowyg-msg-error {<br /> color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html {<br /> padding: 1px 1px 1px 152px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select {<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select {<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> border: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> padding: 0 7px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:focus {<br /> outline: 1px solid #95a5a6;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:focus {<br /> background: #fbfcfc;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input[type=checkbox] {<br /> width: 16px;<br /> height: 16px;<br /> padding: 0;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html-with-checkbox {<br /> text-align: left;<br /> padding: 3px 1px 1px 3px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error select, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error textarea {<br /> outline: 1px solid #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error .trumbowyg-input-infos label span:first-child {<br /> margin-top: -27px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .error {<br /> margin-top: 25px;<br /> display: block;<br /> color: red;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> bottom: 10px;<br /> right: 0;<br /> text-decoration: none;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 100px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> line-height: 33px;<br /> margin: 0 10px;<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif;<br /> font-size: 16px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit {<br /> right: 110px;<br /> background: #2bc06a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:focus {<br /> background: #40d47e;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:active {<br /> background: #25a25a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset {<br /> color: #555;<br /> background: #e6e6e6;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:focus {<br /> background: #fbfbfb;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:active {<br /> background: #d5d5d5;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.5);<br /> height: 100%;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> left: 0;<br /> display: none;<br /> top: 0;<br /> z-index: 10;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /**<br /> * Fullscreen<br /> */<br /> body.trumbowyg-body-fullscreen {<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> position: fixed;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> margin: 0;<br /> padding: 0;<br /> z-index: 99999;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen.trumbowyg-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> border: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-editor-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> height: auto !important;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> height: 100% !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-button-group .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: #222;<br /> fill: transparent;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> /*<br /> * For resetCss option<br /> */<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor object,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor embed,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor video,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> max-width: 100%;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor video,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> height: auto;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> cursor: move;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor canvas:focus {<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css {<br /> background: #fefefe !important;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif !important;<br /> font-size: 14px !important;<br /> line-height: 1.45em !important;<br /> color: #333 !important;<br /> font-weight: normal !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css a {<br /> color: #15c !important;<br /> text-decoration: underline !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css div,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css p,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css blockquote {<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: none !important;<br /> box-shadow: none !important;<br /> background: none !important;<br /> margin: 0 !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> line-height: 1.4em !important;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif !important;<br /> font-size: 14px !important;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css iframe,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css object,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css hr {<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css blockquote {<br /> margin-left: 32px !important;<br /> font-style: italic !important;<br /> color: #555 !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul {<br /> list-style: disc !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol {<br /> list-style: decimal !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol {<br /> padding-left: 20px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol ul {<br /> border: none !important;<br /> margin: 2px !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> padding-left: 24px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css hr {<br /> display: block !important;<br /> height: 1px !important;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> border-top: 1px solid #CCC !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h1,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h2,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h3,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h4 {<br /> color: #111 !important;<br /> background: none !important;<br /> margin: 0 !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> font-weight: bold !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h1 {<br /> font-size: 32px !important;<br /> line-height: 38px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 20px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h2 {<br /> font-size: 26px !important;<br /> line-height: 34px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h3 {<br /> font-size: 22px !important;<br /> line-height: 28px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 7px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h4 {<br /> font-size: 16px !important;<br /> line-height: 22px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 7px !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /*<br /> * Dark theme<br /> */<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> background: #222;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box {<br /> border: 1px solid #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> background: #111;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> text-shadow: 0 0 7px #ccc;<br /> }<br /> @media screen and (min-width: 0 \0 ) {<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(20, 20, 20, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> @supports (-ms-accelerator: true) {<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(20, 20, 20, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box svg {<br /> fill: #fff;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane {<br /> background-color: #222;<br /> border-bottom-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane::before, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> background: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty)::after {<br /> background-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty) .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable .trumbowyg-button-group::after {<br /> background-color: #2a2a2a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-active {<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown::after {<br /> border-top-color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty) .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: #ecf0f1;<br /> fill: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown {<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> background: #333;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3) 0 2px 3px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button {<br /> background: #333;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button:focus {<br /> background: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box {<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-title {<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #555;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> background: #3c3c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row {<br /> border-color: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos {<br /> color: #eee;<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> border-right-color: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos span {<br /> color: #eee;<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos span.trumbowyg-msg-error {<br /> color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error input,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error select,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error textarea {<br /> border-color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea {<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> background: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:focus {<br /> border-color: #626262;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:focus {<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit {<br /> background: #1b7943;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:focus {<br /> background: #25a25a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:active {<br /> background: #176437;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset {<br /> background: #333;<br /> color: #ccc;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:focus {<br /> background: #444;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:active {<br /> background: #111;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> background-color: rgba(15, 15, 15, 0.6);<br /> }<br /> /*<br /> @font-face {<br /> font-family: AthanasuisPlain;<br /> src: url(../fonts/Athanasuis-Plain.ttf);<br /> }<br /> */<br /> .coptic {<br /> font-family: 'New Athena Unicode';<br /> font-size:150%;<br /> }</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Common.css&diff=5393 MediaWiki:Common.css 2026-11-10T16:26:26Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>@import url('https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Calistoga&amp;display=swap');<br /> <br /> /* CSS placed here will be applied to all skins */<br /> .latin {<br /> font-family: &quot;Calistoga&quot;, serif;<br /> font-weight: 400;<br /> font-style: normal;<br /> font-size:133%;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .centeredcells td {<br /> text-align:center;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /**<br /> * Trumbowyg v2.27.3 - A lightweight WYSIWYG editor<br /> * Default stylesheet for Trumbowyg editor<br /> * ------------------------<br /> * @link https://alex-d.github.io/Trumbowyg/<br /> * @license MIT<br /> * @author Alexandre Demode (Alex-D)<br /> * Twitter : @AlexandreDemode<br /> * Website : alex-d.fr<br /> */<br /> <br /> #trumbowyg-icons,<br /> .trumbowyg-icons {<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> visibility: hidden;<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> }<br /> #trumbowyg-icons svg,<br /> .trumbowyg-icons svg {<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box *,<br /> .trumbowyg-box *::before,<br /> .trumbowyg-box *::after,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *::before,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *::after {<br /> -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> -moz-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> box-sizing: border-box;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box svg,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal svg {<br /> width: 17px;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> color: #222;<br /> fill: #222;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-box-orient: vertical;<br /> -webkit-box-direction: normal;<br /> -webkit-flex-direction: column;<br /> -moz-box-orient: vertical;<br /> -moz-box-direction: normal;<br /> -ms-flex-direction: column;<br /> flex-direction: column;<br /> min-height: 300px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> display: block;<br /> -webkit-box-flex: 1;<br /> -webkit-flex: 1;<br /> -moz-box-flex: 1;<br /> -ms-flex: 1;<br /> flex: 1;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> position: relative;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> border: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> min-height: 100%;<br /> margin: 0 auto;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> background: #fefefe;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> position: relative;<br /> -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> -moz-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> box-sizing: border-box;<br /> padding: 20px;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> border-style: none;<br /> resize: none;<br /> outline: none;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> -webkit-user-select: text;<br /> -moz-user-select: text;<br /> -ms-user-select: text;<br /> user-select: text;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box.trumbowyg-autogrow-on-enter,<br /> .trumbowyg-textarea.trumbowyg-autogrow-on-enter {<br /> -webkit-transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> -o-transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> padding: 0;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> outline: none;<br /> padding: 20px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: transparent !important;<br /> text-shadow: 0 0 7px #333;<br /> }<br /> @media screen and (min-width: 0 \0 ) {<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(200, 200, 200, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> @supports (-ms-accelerator: true) {<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(200, 200, 200, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor img,<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor hr {<br /> opacity: 0.2;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> position: relative;<br /> display: block;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> border: none;<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> font-family: &quot;Consolas&quot;, &quot;Courier&quot;, &quot;Courier New&quot;, monospace;<br /> line-height: 18px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-visible .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> height: 1px !important;<br /> width: 25%;<br /> min-height: 0 !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> background: none;<br /> opacity: 0 !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-hidden .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> display: block;<br /> -webkit-box-flex: 1;<br /> -webkit-flex: 1;<br /> -moz-box-flex: 1;<br /> -ms-flex: 1;<br /> flex: 1;<br /> margin-bottom: 1px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-hidden .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> display: none;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> opacity: 0.8;<br /> background: none;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box[contenteditable=true]:empty:not(:focus)::before {<br /> content: attr(placeholder);<br /> color: #999;<br /> pointer-events: none;<br /> white-space: break-spaces;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> -ms-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> min-height: 36px;<br /> background: #ecf0f1;<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> margin: 0;<br /> padding: 0 5px;<br /> position: relative;<br /> list-style-type: none;<br /> line-height: 10px;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> z-index: 11;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane::before, .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> display: block;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 35px;<br /> left: 0;<br /> right: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 1px;<br /> background: #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> top: 71px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> -ms-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group::after {<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 1px;<br /> background: #d7e0e2;<br /> margin: 0 5px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> vertical-align: top;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:last-child::after {<br /> content: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button {<br /> display: block;<br /> position: relative;<br /> width: 35px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> padding: 1px 6px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 1px;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> background: none;<br /> vertical-align: middle;<br /> -webkit-transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-textual-button {<br /> width: auto;<br /> line-height: 35px;<br /> -webkit-user-select: none;<br /> -moz-user-select: none;<br /> -ms-user-select: none;<br /> user-select: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable button:not(.trumbowyg-not-disable):not(.trumbowyg-active),<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-disable, .trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-not-disable):not(.trumbowyg-viewHTML-button) {<br /> opacity: 0.2;<br /> cursor: default;<br /> pointer-events: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable .trumbowyg-button-group::before, .trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group::before {<br /> background: #e3e9eb;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-active {<br /> background-color: #fff;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown::after {<br /> display: block;<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 27px;<br /> right: 3px;<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> border: 3px solid transparent;<br /> border-top-color: #555;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown.trumbowyg-textual-button {<br /> padding-left: 10px !important;<br /> padding-right: 18px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown.trumbowyg-textual-button::after {<br /> top: 17px;<br /> right: 7px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-right {<br /> margin-left: auto;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown {<br /> max-width: 300px;<br /> max-height: 250px;<br /> overflow-y: auto;<br /> overflow-x: hidden;<br /> white-space: nowrap;<br /> border: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> padding: 5px 0;<br /> border-top: none;<br /> background: #fff;<br /> color: #222;<br /> margin-left: -1px;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 0 2px 3px;<br /> z-index: 12;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button {<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> line-height: 35px;<br /> text-decoration: none;<br /> background: #fff;<br /> padding: 0 20px 0 10px;<br /> color: #222;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> text-align: left;<br /> font-size: 15px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button:hover, .trumbowyg-dropdown button:focus {<br /> background: #ecf0f1;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button svg {<br /> float: left;<br /> margin-right: 14px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /* Modal box */<br /> .trumbowyg-modal {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 50%;<br /> -webkit-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -ms-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -o-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> max-width: 520px;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 350px;<br /> z-index: 12;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 50%;<br /> -webkit-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -ms-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -o-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> max-width: 500px;<br /> width: calc(100% - 20px);<br /> padding-bottom: 45px;<br /> z-index: 1;<br /> background-color: #fff;<br /> text-align: center;<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0 2px 3px;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-title {<br /> font-size: 24px;<br /> font-weight: bold;<br /> margin: 0 0 20px;<br /> padding: 15px 0 13px;<br /> display: block;<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-progress {<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 3px;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 58px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-progress .trumbowyg-progress-bar {<br /> background: #2BC06A;<br /> width: 0;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> -webkit-transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> -o-transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row {<br /> position: relative;<br /> margin: 15px 12px;<br /> border: 1px solid #dedede;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos {<br /> text-align: left;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> width: 150px;<br /> border-right: 1px solid #dedede;<br /> padding: 0 7px;<br /> background-color: #fbfcfc;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> left: 0;<br /> top: 0;<br /> bottom: 0;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label {<br /> color: #69878f;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label span {<br /> display: block;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos .trumbowyg-msg-error {<br /> color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html {<br /> padding: 1px 1px 1px 152px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select {<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select {<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> border: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> padding: 0 7px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:focus {<br /> outline: 1px solid #95a5a6;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:focus {<br /> background: #fbfcfc;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input[type=checkbox] {<br /> width: 16px;<br /> height: 16px;<br /> padding: 0;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html-with-checkbox {<br /> text-align: left;<br /> padding: 3px 1px 1px 3px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error select, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error textarea {<br /> outline: 1px solid #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error .trumbowyg-input-infos label span:first-child {<br /> margin-top: -27px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .error {<br /> margin-top: 25px;<br /> display: block;<br /> color: red;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> bottom: 10px;<br /> right: 0;<br /> text-decoration: none;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 100px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> line-height: 33px;<br /> margin: 0 10px;<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif;<br /> font-size: 16px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit {<br /> right: 110px;<br /> background: #2bc06a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:focus {<br /> background: #40d47e;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:active {<br /> background: #25a25a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset {<br /> color: #555;<br /> background: #e6e6e6;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:focus {<br /> background: #fbfbfb;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:active {<br /> background: #d5d5d5;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.5);<br /> height: 100%;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> left: 0;<br /> display: none;<br /> top: 0;<br /> z-index: 10;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /**<br /> * Fullscreen<br /> */<br /> body.trumbowyg-body-fullscreen {<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> position: fixed;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> margin: 0;<br /> padding: 0;<br /> z-index: 99999;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen.trumbowyg-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> border: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-editor-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> height: auto !important;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> height: 100% !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-button-group .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: #222;<br /> fill: transparent;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> /*<br /> * For resetCss option<br /> */<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor object,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor embed,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor video,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> max-width: 100%;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor video,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> height: auto;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> cursor: move;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor canvas:focus {<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css {<br /> background: #fefefe !important;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif !important;<br /> font-size: 14px !important;<br /> line-height: 1.45em !important;<br /> color: #333 !important;<br /> font-weight: normal !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css a {<br /> color: #15c !important;<br /> text-decoration: underline !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css div,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css p,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css blockquote {<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: none !important;<br /> box-shadow: none !important;<br /> background: none !important;<br /> margin: 0 !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> line-height: 1.4em !important;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif !important;<br /> font-size: 14px !important;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css iframe,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css object,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css hr {<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css blockquote {<br /> margin-left: 32px !important;<br /> font-style: italic !important;<br /> color: #555 !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul {<br /> list-style: disc !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol {<br /> list-style: decimal !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol {<br /> padding-left: 20px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol ul {<br /> border: none !important;<br /> margin: 2px !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> padding-left: 24px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css hr {<br /> display: block !important;<br /> height: 1px !important;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> border-top: 1px solid #CCC !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h1,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h2,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h3,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h4 {<br /> color: #111 !important;<br /> background: none !important;<br /> margin: 0 !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> font-weight: bold !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h1 {<br /> font-size: 32px !important;<br /> line-height: 38px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 20px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h2 {<br /> font-size: 26px !important;<br /> line-height: 34px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h3 {<br /> font-size: 22px !important;<br /> line-height: 28px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 7px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h4 {<br /> font-size: 16px !important;<br /> line-height: 22px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 7px !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /*<br /> * Dark theme<br /> */<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> background: #222;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box {<br /> border: 1px solid #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> background: #111;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> text-shadow: 0 0 7px #ccc;<br /> }<br /> @media screen and (min-width: 0 \0 ) {<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(20, 20, 20, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> @supports (-ms-accelerator: true) {<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(20, 20, 20, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box svg {<br /> fill: #fff;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane {<br /> background-color: #222;<br /> border-bottom-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane::before, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> background: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty)::after {<br /> background-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty) .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable .trumbowyg-button-group::after {<br /> background-color: #2a2a2a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-active {<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown::after {<br /> border-top-color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty) .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: #ecf0f1;<br /> fill: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown {<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> background: #333;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3) 0 2px 3px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button {<br /> background: #333;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button:focus {<br /> background: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box {<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-title {<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #555;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> background: #3c3c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row {<br /> border-color: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos {<br /> color: #eee;<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> border-right-color: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos span {<br /> color: #eee;<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos span.trumbowyg-msg-error {<br /> color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error input,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error select,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error textarea {<br /> border-color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea {<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> background: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:focus {<br /> border-color: #626262;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:focus {<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit {<br /> background: #1b7943;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:focus {<br /> background: #25a25a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:active {<br /> background: #176437;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset {<br /> background: #333;<br /> color: #ccc;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:focus {<br /> background: #444;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:active {<br /> background: #111;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> background-color: rgba(15, 15, 15, 0.6);<br /> }<br /> <br /> @font-face {<br /> font-family: AthanasuisPlain;<br /> src: url(../fonts/Athanasuis-Plain.ttf);<br /> }<br /> <br /> .coptic {<br /> font-family: 'New Athena Unicode';<br /> font-size:200%;<br /> }</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Common.css&diff=5392 MediaWiki:Common.css 2026-11-10T16:24:29Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>@import url('https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Calistoga&amp;display=swap');<br /> <br /> /* CSS placed here will be applied to all skins */<br /> .latin {<br /> font-family: &quot;Calistoga&quot;, serif;<br /> font-weight: 400;<br /> font-style: normal;<br /> font-size:133%;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .centeredcells td {<br /> text-align:center;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /**<br /> * Trumbowyg v2.27.3 - A lightweight WYSIWYG editor<br /> * Default stylesheet for Trumbowyg editor<br /> * ------------------------<br /> * @link https://alex-d.github.io/Trumbowyg/<br /> * @license MIT<br /> * @author Alexandre Demode (Alex-D)<br /> * Twitter : @AlexandreDemode<br /> * Website : alex-d.fr<br /> */<br /> <br /> #trumbowyg-icons,<br /> .trumbowyg-icons {<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> visibility: hidden;<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> }<br /> #trumbowyg-icons svg,<br /> .trumbowyg-icons svg {<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box *,<br /> .trumbowyg-box *::before,<br /> .trumbowyg-box *::after,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *::before,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *::after {<br /> -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> -moz-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> box-sizing: border-box;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box svg,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal svg {<br /> width: 17px;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> color: #222;<br /> fill: #222;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-box-orient: vertical;<br /> -webkit-box-direction: normal;<br /> -webkit-flex-direction: column;<br /> -moz-box-orient: vertical;<br /> -moz-box-direction: normal;<br /> -ms-flex-direction: column;<br /> flex-direction: column;<br /> min-height: 300px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> display: block;<br /> -webkit-box-flex: 1;<br /> -webkit-flex: 1;<br /> -moz-box-flex: 1;<br /> -ms-flex: 1;<br /> flex: 1;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> position: relative;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> border: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> min-height: 100%;<br /> margin: 0 auto;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> background: #fefefe;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> position: relative;<br /> -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> -moz-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> box-sizing: border-box;<br /> padding: 20px;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> border-style: none;<br /> resize: none;<br /> outline: none;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> -webkit-user-select: text;<br /> -moz-user-select: text;<br /> -ms-user-select: text;<br /> user-select: text;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box.trumbowyg-autogrow-on-enter,<br /> .trumbowyg-textarea.trumbowyg-autogrow-on-enter {<br /> -webkit-transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> -o-transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> padding: 0;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> outline: none;<br /> padding: 20px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: transparent !important;<br /> text-shadow: 0 0 7px #333;<br /> }<br /> @media screen and (min-width: 0 \0 ) {<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(200, 200, 200, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> @supports (-ms-accelerator: true) {<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(200, 200, 200, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor img,<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor hr {<br /> opacity: 0.2;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> position: relative;<br /> display: block;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> border: none;<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> font-family: &quot;Consolas&quot;, &quot;Courier&quot;, &quot;Courier New&quot;, monospace;<br /> line-height: 18px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-visible .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> height: 1px !important;<br /> width: 25%;<br /> min-height: 0 !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> background: none;<br /> opacity: 0 !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-hidden .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> display: block;<br /> -webkit-box-flex: 1;<br /> -webkit-flex: 1;<br /> -moz-box-flex: 1;<br /> -ms-flex: 1;<br /> flex: 1;<br /> margin-bottom: 1px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-hidden .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> display: none;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> opacity: 0.8;<br /> background: none;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box[contenteditable=true]:empty:not(:focus)::before {<br /> content: attr(placeholder);<br /> color: #999;<br /> pointer-events: none;<br /> white-space: break-spaces;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> -ms-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> min-height: 36px;<br /> background: #ecf0f1;<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> margin: 0;<br /> padding: 0 5px;<br /> position: relative;<br /> list-style-type: none;<br /> line-height: 10px;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> z-index: 11;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane::before, .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> display: block;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 35px;<br /> left: 0;<br /> right: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 1px;<br /> background: #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> top: 71px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> -ms-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group::after {<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 1px;<br /> background: #d7e0e2;<br /> margin: 0 5px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> vertical-align: top;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:last-child::after {<br /> content: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button {<br /> display: block;<br /> position: relative;<br /> width: 35px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> padding: 1px 6px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 1px;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> background: none;<br /> vertical-align: middle;<br /> -webkit-transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-textual-button {<br /> width: auto;<br /> line-height: 35px;<br /> -webkit-user-select: none;<br /> -moz-user-select: none;<br /> -ms-user-select: none;<br /> user-select: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable button:not(.trumbowyg-not-disable):not(.trumbowyg-active),<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-disable, .trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-not-disable):not(.trumbowyg-viewHTML-button) {<br /> opacity: 0.2;<br /> cursor: default;<br /> pointer-events: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable .trumbowyg-button-group::before, .trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group::before {<br /> background: #e3e9eb;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-active {<br /> background-color: #fff;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown::after {<br /> display: block;<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 27px;<br /> right: 3px;<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> border: 3px solid transparent;<br /> border-top-color: #555;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown.trumbowyg-textual-button {<br /> padding-left: 10px !important;<br /> padding-right: 18px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown.trumbowyg-textual-button::after {<br /> top: 17px;<br /> right: 7px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-right {<br /> margin-left: auto;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown {<br /> max-width: 300px;<br /> max-height: 250px;<br /> overflow-y: auto;<br /> overflow-x: hidden;<br /> white-space: nowrap;<br /> border: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> padding: 5px 0;<br /> border-top: none;<br /> background: #fff;<br /> color: #222;<br /> margin-left: -1px;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 0 2px 3px;<br /> z-index: 12;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button {<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> line-height: 35px;<br /> text-decoration: none;<br /> background: #fff;<br /> padding: 0 20px 0 10px;<br /> color: #222;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> text-align: left;<br /> font-size: 15px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button:hover, .trumbowyg-dropdown button:focus {<br /> background: #ecf0f1;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button svg {<br /> float: left;<br /> margin-right: 14px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /* Modal box */<br /> .trumbowyg-modal {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 50%;<br /> -webkit-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -ms-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -o-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> max-width: 520px;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 350px;<br /> z-index: 12;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 50%;<br /> -webkit-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -ms-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -o-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> max-width: 500px;<br /> width: calc(100% - 20px);<br /> padding-bottom: 45px;<br /> z-index: 1;<br /> background-color: #fff;<br /> text-align: center;<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0 2px 3px;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-title {<br /> font-size: 24px;<br /> font-weight: bold;<br /> margin: 0 0 20px;<br /> padding: 15px 0 13px;<br /> display: block;<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-progress {<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 3px;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 58px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-progress .trumbowyg-progress-bar {<br /> background: #2BC06A;<br /> width: 0;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> -webkit-transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> -o-transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row {<br /> position: relative;<br /> margin: 15px 12px;<br /> border: 1px solid #dedede;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos {<br /> text-align: left;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> width: 150px;<br /> border-right: 1px solid #dedede;<br /> padding: 0 7px;<br /> background-color: #fbfcfc;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> left: 0;<br /> top: 0;<br /> bottom: 0;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label {<br /> color: #69878f;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label span {<br /> display: block;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos .trumbowyg-msg-error {<br /> color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html {<br /> padding: 1px 1px 1px 152px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select {<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select {<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> border: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> padding: 0 7px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:focus {<br /> outline: 1px solid #95a5a6;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:focus {<br /> background: #fbfcfc;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input[type=checkbox] {<br /> width: 16px;<br /> height: 16px;<br /> padding: 0;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html-with-checkbox {<br /> text-align: left;<br /> padding: 3px 1px 1px 3px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error select, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error textarea {<br /> outline: 1px solid #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error .trumbowyg-input-infos label span:first-child {<br /> margin-top: -27px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .error {<br /> margin-top: 25px;<br /> display: block;<br /> color: red;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> bottom: 10px;<br /> right: 0;<br /> text-decoration: none;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 100px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> line-height: 33px;<br /> margin: 0 10px;<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif;<br /> font-size: 16px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit {<br /> right: 110px;<br /> background: #2bc06a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:focus {<br /> background: #40d47e;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:active {<br /> background: #25a25a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset {<br /> color: #555;<br /> background: #e6e6e6;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:focus {<br /> background: #fbfbfb;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:active {<br /> background: #d5d5d5;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.5);<br /> height: 100%;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> left: 0;<br /> display: none;<br /> top: 0;<br /> z-index: 10;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /**<br /> * Fullscreen<br /> */<br /> body.trumbowyg-body-fullscreen {<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> position: fixed;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> margin: 0;<br /> padding: 0;<br /> z-index: 99999;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen.trumbowyg-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> border: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-editor-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> height: auto !important;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> height: 100% !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-button-group .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: #222;<br /> fill: transparent;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> /*<br /> * For resetCss option<br /> */<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor object,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor embed,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor video,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> max-width: 100%;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor video,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> height: auto;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> cursor: move;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor canvas:focus {<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css {<br /> background: #fefefe !important;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif !important;<br /> font-size: 14px !important;<br /> line-height: 1.45em !important;<br /> color: #333 !important;<br /> font-weight: normal !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css a {<br /> color: #15c !important;<br /> text-decoration: underline !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css div,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css p,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css blockquote {<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: none !important;<br /> box-shadow: none !important;<br /> background: none !important;<br /> margin: 0 !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> line-height: 1.4em !important;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif !important;<br /> font-size: 14px !important;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css iframe,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css object,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css hr {<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css blockquote {<br /> margin-left: 32px !important;<br /> font-style: italic !important;<br /> color: #555 !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul {<br /> list-style: disc !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol {<br /> list-style: decimal !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol {<br /> padding-left: 20px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol ul {<br /> border: none !important;<br /> margin: 2px !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> padding-left: 24px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css hr {<br /> display: block !important;<br /> height: 1px !important;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> border-top: 1px solid #CCC !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h1,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h2,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h3,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h4 {<br /> color: #111 !important;<br /> background: none !important;<br /> margin: 0 !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> font-weight: bold !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h1 {<br /> font-size: 32px !important;<br /> line-height: 38px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 20px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h2 {<br /> font-size: 26px !important;<br /> line-height: 34px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h3 {<br /> font-size: 22px !important;<br /> line-height: 28px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 7px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h4 {<br /> font-size: 16px !important;<br /> line-height: 22px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 7px !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /*<br /> * Dark theme<br /> */<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> background: #222;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box {<br /> border: 1px solid #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> background: #111;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> text-shadow: 0 0 7px #ccc;<br /> }<br /> @media screen and (min-width: 0 \0 ) {<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(20, 20, 20, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> @supports (-ms-accelerator: true) {<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(20, 20, 20, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box svg {<br /> fill: #fff;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane {<br /> background-color: #222;<br /> border-bottom-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane::before, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> background: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty)::after {<br /> background-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty) .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable .trumbowyg-button-group::after {<br /> background-color: #2a2a2a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-active {<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown::after {<br /> border-top-color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty) .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: #ecf0f1;<br /> fill: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown {<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> background: #333;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3) 0 2px 3px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button {<br /> background: #333;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button:focus {<br /> background: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box {<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-title {<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #555;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> background: #3c3c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row {<br /> border-color: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos {<br /> color: #eee;<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> border-right-color: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos span {<br /> color: #eee;<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos span.trumbowyg-msg-error {<br /> color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error input,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error select,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error textarea {<br /> border-color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea {<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> background: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:focus {<br /> border-color: #626262;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:focus {<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit {<br /> background: #1b7943;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:focus {<br /> background: #25a25a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:active {<br /> background: #176437;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset {<br /> background: #333;<br /> color: #ccc;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:focus {<br /> background: #444;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:active {<br /> background: #111;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> background-color: rgba(15, 15, 15, 0.6);<br /> }<br /> <br /> @font-face {<br /> font-family: AthanasuisPlain;<br /> src: url(../fonts/Athanasuis-Plain.ttf);<br /> }<br /> <br /> .coptic {<br /> font-family: AthanasuisPlain;<br /> font-size:200%;<br /> }</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Common.css&diff=5391 MediaWiki:Common.css 2026-11-10T16:23:10Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>@import url('https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Calistoga&amp;display=swap');<br /> <br /> /* CSS placed here will be applied to all skins */<br /> .latin {<br /> font-family: &quot;Calistoga&quot;, serif;<br /> font-weight: 400;<br /> font-style: normal;<br /> font-size:133%;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .centeredcells td {<br /> text-align:center;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /**<br /> * Trumbowyg v2.27.3 - A lightweight WYSIWYG editor<br /> * Default stylesheet for Trumbowyg editor<br /> * ------------------------<br /> * @link https://alex-d.github.io/Trumbowyg/<br /> * @license MIT<br /> * @author Alexandre Demode (Alex-D)<br /> * Twitter : @AlexandreDemode<br /> * Website : alex-d.fr<br /> */<br /> <br /> #trumbowyg-icons,<br /> .trumbowyg-icons {<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> visibility: hidden;<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> }<br /> #trumbowyg-icons svg,<br /> .trumbowyg-icons svg {<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box *,<br /> .trumbowyg-box *::before,<br /> .trumbowyg-box *::after,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *::before,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *::after {<br /> -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> -moz-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> box-sizing: border-box;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box svg,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal svg {<br /> width: 17px;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> color: #222;<br /> fill: #222;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-box-orient: vertical;<br /> -webkit-box-direction: normal;<br /> -webkit-flex-direction: column;<br /> -moz-box-orient: vertical;<br /> -moz-box-direction: normal;<br /> -ms-flex-direction: column;<br /> flex-direction: column;<br /> min-height: 300px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> display: block;<br /> -webkit-box-flex: 1;<br /> -webkit-flex: 1;<br /> -moz-box-flex: 1;<br /> -ms-flex: 1;<br /> flex: 1;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> position: relative;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> border: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> min-height: 100%;<br /> margin: 0 auto;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> background: #fefefe;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> position: relative;<br /> -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> -moz-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> box-sizing: border-box;<br /> padding: 20px;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> border-style: none;<br /> resize: none;<br /> outline: none;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> -webkit-user-select: text;<br /> -moz-user-select: text;<br /> -ms-user-select: text;<br /> user-select: text;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box.trumbowyg-autogrow-on-enter,<br /> .trumbowyg-textarea.trumbowyg-autogrow-on-enter {<br /> -webkit-transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> -o-transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> padding: 0;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> outline: none;<br /> padding: 20px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: transparent !important;<br /> text-shadow: 0 0 7px #333;<br /> }<br /> @media screen and (min-width: 0 \0 ) {<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(200, 200, 200, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> @supports (-ms-accelerator: true) {<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(200, 200, 200, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor img,<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor hr {<br /> opacity: 0.2;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> position: relative;<br /> display: block;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> border: none;<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> font-family: &quot;Consolas&quot;, &quot;Courier&quot;, &quot;Courier New&quot;, monospace;<br /> line-height: 18px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-visible .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> height: 1px !important;<br /> width: 25%;<br /> min-height: 0 !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> background: none;<br /> opacity: 0 !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-hidden .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> display: block;<br /> -webkit-box-flex: 1;<br /> -webkit-flex: 1;<br /> -moz-box-flex: 1;<br /> -ms-flex: 1;<br /> flex: 1;<br /> margin-bottom: 1px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-hidden .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> display: none;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> opacity: 0.8;<br /> background: none;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box[contenteditable=true]:empty:not(:focus)::before {<br /> content: attr(placeholder);<br /> color: #999;<br /> pointer-events: none;<br /> white-space: break-spaces;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> -ms-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> min-height: 36px;<br /> background: #ecf0f1;<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> margin: 0;<br /> padding: 0 5px;<br /> position: relative;<br /> list-style-type: none;<br /> line-height: 10px;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> z-index: 11;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane::before, .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> display: block;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 35px;<br /> left: 0;<br /> right: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 1px;<br /> background: #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> top: 71px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> -ms-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group::after {<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 1px;<br /> background: #d7e0e2;<br /> margin: 0 5px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> vertical-align: top;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:last-child::after {<br /> content: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button {<br /> display: block;<br /> position: relative;<br /> width: 35px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> padding: 1px 6px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 1px;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> background: none;<br /> vertical-align: middle;<br /> -webkit-transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-textual-button {<br /> width: auto;<br /> line-height: 35px;<br /> -webkit-user-select: none;<br /> -moz-user-select: none;<br /> -ms-user-select: none;<br /> user-select: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable button:not(.trumbowyg-not-disable):not(.trumbowyg-active),<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-disable, .trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-not-disable):not(.trumbowyg-viewHTML-button) {<br /> opacity: 0.2;<br /> cursor: default;<br /> pointer-events: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable .trumbowyg-button-group::before, .trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group::before {<br /> background: #e3e9eb;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-active {<br /> background-color: #fff;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown::after {<br /> display: block;<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 27px;<br /> right: 3px;<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> border: 3px solid transparent;<br /> border-top-color: #555;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown.trumbowyg-textual-button {<br /> padding-left: 10px !important;<br /> padding-right: 18px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown.trumbowyg-textual-button::after {<br /> top: 17px;<br /> right: 7px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-right {<br /> margin-left: auto;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown {<br /> max-width: 300px;<br /> max-height: 250px;<br /> overflow-y: auto;<br /> overflow-x: hidden;<br /> white-space: nowrap;<br /> border: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> padding: 5px 0;<br /> border-top: none;<br /> background: #fff;<br /> color: #222;<br /> margin-left: -1px;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 0 2px 3px;<br /> z-index: 12;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button {<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> line-height: 35px;<br /> text-decoration: none;<br /> background: #fff;<br /> padding: 0 20px 0 10px;<br /> color: #222;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> text-align: left;<br /> font-size: 15px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button:hover, .trumbowyg-dropdown button:focus {<br /> background: #ecf0f1;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button svg {<br /> float: left;<br /> margin-right: 14px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /* Modal box */<br /> .trumbowyg-modal {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 50%;<br /> -webkit-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -ms-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -o-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> max-width: 520px;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 350px;<br /> z-index: 12;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 50%;<br /> -webkit-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -ms-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -o-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> max-width: 500px;<br /> width: calc(100% - 20px);<br /> padding-bottom: 45px;<br /> z-index: 1;<br /> background-color: #fff;<br /> text-align: center;<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0 2px 3px;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-title {<br /> font-size: 24px;<br /> font-weight: bold;<br /> margin: 0 0 20px;<br /> padding: 15px 0 13px;<br /> display: block;<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-progress {<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 3px;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 58px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-progress .trumbowyg-progress-bar {<br /> background: #2BC06A;<br /> width: 0;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> -webkit-transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> -o-transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row {<br /> position: relative;<br /> margin: 15px 12px;<br /> border: 1px solid #dedede;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos {<br /> text-align: left;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> width: 150px;<br /> border-right: 1px solid #dedede;<br /> padding: 0 7px;<br /> background-color: #fbfcfc;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> left: 0;<br /> top: 0;<br /> bottom: 0;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label {<br /> color: #69878f;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label span {<br /> display: block;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos .trumbowyg-msg-error {<br /> color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html {<br /> padding: 1px 1px 1px 152px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select {<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select {<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> border: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> padding: 0 7px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:focus {<br /> outline: 1px solid #95a5a6;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:focus {<br /> background: #fbfcfc;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input[type=checkbox] {<br /> width: 16px;<br /> height: 16px;<br /> padding: 0;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html-with-checkbox {<br /> text-align: left;<br /> padding: 3px 1px 1px 3px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error select, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error textarea {<br /> outline: 1px solid #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error .trumbowyg-input-infos label span:first-child {<br /> margin-top: -27px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .error {<br /> margin-top: 25px;<br /> display: block;<br /> color: red;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> bottom: 10px;<br /> right: 0;<br /> text-decoration: none;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 100px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> line-height: 33px;<br /> margin: 0 10px;<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif;<br /> font-size: 16px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit {<br /> right: 110px;<br /> background: #2bc06a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:focus {<br /> background: #40d47e;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:active {<br /> background: #25a25a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset {<br /> color: #555;<br /> background: #e6e6e6;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:focus {<br /> background: #fbfbfb;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:active {<br /> background: #d5d5d5;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.5);<br /> height: 100%;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> left: 0;<br /> display: none;<br /> top: 0;<br /> z-index: 10;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /**<br /> * Fullscreen<br /> */<br /> body.trumbowyg-body-fullscreen {<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> position: fixed;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> margin: 0;<br /> padding: 0;<br /> z-index: 99999;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen.trumbowyg-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> border: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-editor-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> height: auto !important;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> height: 100% !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-button-group .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: #222;<br /> fill: transparent;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> /*<br /> * For resetCss option<br /> */<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor object,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor embed,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor video,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> max-width: 100%;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor video,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> height: auto;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> cursor: move;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor canvas:focus {<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css {<br /> background: #fefefe !important;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif !important;<br /> font-size: 14px !important;<br /> line-height: 1.45em !important;<br /> color: #333 !important;<br /> font-weight: normal !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css a {<br /> color: #15c !important;<br /> text-decoration: underline !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css div,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css p,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css blockquote {<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: none !important;<br /> box-shadow: none !important;<br /> background: none !important;<br /> margin: 0 !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> line-height: 1.4em !important;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif !important;<br /> font-size: 14px !important;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css iframe,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css object,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css hr {<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css blockquote {<br /> margin-left: 32px !important;<br /> font-style: italic !important;<br /> color: #555 !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul {<br /> list-style: disc !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol {<br /> list-style: decimal !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol {<br /> padding-left: 20px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol ul {<br /> border: none !important;<br /> margin: 2px !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> padding-left: 24px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css hr {<br /> display: block !important;<br /> height: 1px !important;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> border-top: 1px solid #CCC !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h1,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h2,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h3,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h4 {<br /> color: #111 !important;<br /> background: none !important;<br /> margin: 0 !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> font-weight: bold !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h1 {<br /> font-size: 32px !important;<br /> line-height: 38px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 20px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h2 {<br /> font-size: 26px !important;<br /> line-height: 34px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h3 {<br /> font-size: 22px !important;<br /> line-height: 28px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 7px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h4 {<br /> font-size: 16px !important;<br /> line-height: 22px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 7px !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /*<br /> * Dark theme<br /> */<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> background: #222;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box {<br /> border: 1px solid #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> background: #111;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> text-shadow: 0 0 7px #ccc;<br /> }<br /> @media screen and (min-width: 0 \0 ) {<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(20, 20, 20, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> @supports (-ms-accelerator: true) {<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(20, 20, 20, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box svg {<br /> fill: #fff;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane {<br /> background-color: #222;<br /> border-bottom-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane::before, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> background: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty)::after {<br /> background-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty) .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable .trumbowyg-button-group::after {<br /> background-color: #2a2a2a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-active {<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown::after {<br /> border-top-color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty) .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: #ecf0f1;<br /> fill: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown {<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> background: #333;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3) 0 2px 3px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button {<br /> background: #333;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button:focus {<br /> background: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box {<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-title {<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #555;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> background: #3c3c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row {<br /> border-color: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos {<br /> color: #eee;<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> border-right-color: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos span {<br /> color: #eee;<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos span.trumbowyg-msg-error {<br /> color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error input,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error select,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row.trumbowyg-input-error textarea {<br /> border-color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea {<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> background: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:focus {<br /> border-color: #626262;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:focus {<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit {<br /> background: #1b7943;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:focus {<br /> background: #25a25a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:active {<br /> background: #176437;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset {<br /> background: #333;<br /> color: #ccc;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:focus {<br /> background: #444;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:active {<br /> background: #111;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> background-color: rgba(15, 15, 15, 0.6);<br /> }<br /> <br /> @font-face {<br /> font-family: AthanasuisPlain;<br /> src: url(https://oderalon.net/fonts/Athanasuis-Plain.ttf);<br /> }<br /> <br /> .coptic {<br /> font-family: AthanasuisPlain;<br /> font-size:200%;<br /> }</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Common.css&diff=5390 MediaWiki:Common.css 2026-11-10T16:21:55Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>@import url('https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Calistoga&amp;display=swap');<br /> <br /> /* CSS placed here will be applied to all skins */<br /> .latin {<br /> font-family: &quot;Calistoga&quot;, serif;<br /> font-weight: 400;<br /> font-style: normal;<br /> font-size:133%;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .centeredcells td {<br /> text-align:center;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /**<br /> * Trumbowyg v2.27.3 - A lightweight WYSIWYG editor<br /> * Default stylesheet for Trumbowyg editor<br /> * ------------------------<br /> * @link https://alex-d.github.io/Trumbowyg/<br /> * @license MIT<br /> * @author Alexandre Demode (Alex-D)<br /> * Twitter : @AlexandreDemode<br /> * Website : alex-d.fr<br /> */<br /> <br /> #trumbowyg-icons,<br /> .trumbowyg-icons {<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> visibility: hidden;<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> }<br /> #trumbowyg-icons svg,<br /> .trumbowyg-icons svg {<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box *,<br /> .trumbowyg-box *::before,<br /> .trumbowyg-box *::after,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *::before,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal *::after {<br /> -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> -moz-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> box-sizing: border-box;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box svg,<br /> .trumbowyg-modal svg {<br /> width: 17px;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> color: #222;<br /> fill: #222;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-box-orient: vertical;<br /> -webkit-box-direction: normal;<br /> -webkit-flex-direction: column;<br /> -moz-box-orient: vertical;<br /> -moz-box-direction: normal;<br /> -ms-flex-direction: column;<br /> flex-direction: column;<br /> min-height: 300px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> display: block;<br /> -webkit-box-flex: 1;<br /> -webkit-flex: 1;<br /> -moz-box-flex: 1;<br /> -ms-flex: 1;<br /> flex: 1;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> position: relative;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> border: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> min-height: 100%;<br /> margin: 0 auto;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> background: #fefefe;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> position: relative;<br /> -webkit-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> -moz-box-sizing: border-box;<br /> box-sizing: border-box;<br /> padding: 20px;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> border-style: none;<br /> resize: none;<br /> outline: none;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> -webkit-user-select: text;<br /> -moz-user-select: text;<br /> -ms-user-select: text;<br /> user-select: text;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box.trumbowyg-autogrow-on-enter,<br /> .trumbowyg-textarea.trumbowyg-autogrow-on-enter {<br /> -webkit-transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> -o-transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> transition: height 300ms ease-out;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> padding: 0;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> outline: none;<br /> padding: 20px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: transparent !important;<br /> text-shadow: 0 0 7px #333;<br /> }<br /> @media screen and (min-width: 0 \0 ) {<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(200, 200, 200, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> @supports (-ms-accelerator: true) {<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(200, 200, 200, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor img,<br /> .trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor hr {<br /> opacity: 0.2;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> position: relative;<br /> display: block;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> border: none;<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> font-family: &quot;Consolas&quot;, &quot;Courier&quot;, &quot;Courier New&quot;, monospace;<br /> line-height: 18px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-visible .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> height: 1px !important;<br /> width: 25%;<br /> min-height: 0 !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> background: none;<br /> opacity: 0 !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-hidden .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> display: block;<br /> -webkit-box-flex: 1;<br /> -webkit-flex: 1;<br /> -moz-box-flex: 1;<br /> -ms-flex: 1;<br /> flex: 1;<br /> margin-bottom: 1px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-editor-hidden .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> display: none;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> opacity: 0.8;<br /> background: none;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor-box[contenteditable=true]:empty:not(:focus)::before {<br /> content: attr(placeholder);<br /> color: #999;<br /> pointer-events: none;<br /> white-space: break-spaces;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> -ms-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> min-height: 36px;<br /> background: #ecf0f1;<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> margin: 0;<br /> padding: 0 5px;<br /> position: relative;<br /> list-style-type: none;<br /> line-height: 10px;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> z-index: 11;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane::before, .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> display: block;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 35px;<br /> left: 0;<br /> right: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 1px;<br /> background: #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> top: 71px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group {<br /> display: -webkit-box;<br /> display: -webkit-flex;<br /> display: -moz-box;<br /> display: -ms-flexbox;<br /> display: flex;<br /> -webkit-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> -ms-flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> flex-wrap: wrap;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group::after {<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 1px;<br /> background: #d7e0e2;<br /> margin: 0 5px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> vertical-align: top;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:last-child::after {<br /> content: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button {<br /> display: block;<br /> position: relative;<br /> width: 35px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> padding: 1px 6px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 1px;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> background: none;<br /> vertical-align: middle;<br /> -webkit-transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> transition: background-color 150ms, opacity 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-textual-button {<br /> width: auto;<br /> line-height: 35px;<br /> -webkit-user-select: none;<br /> -moz-user-select: none;<br /> -ms-user-select: none;<br /> user-select: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable button:not(.trumbowyg-not-disable):not(.trumbowyg-active),<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-disable, .trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-not-disable):not(.trumbowyg-viewHTML-button) {<br /> opacity: 0.2;<br /> cursor: default;<br /> pointer-events: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable .trumbowyg-button-group::before, .trumbowyg-disabled .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group::before {<br /> background: #e3e9eb;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-active {<br /> background-color: #fff;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown::after {<br /> display: block;<br /> content: &quot; &quot;;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 27px;<br /> right: 3px;<br /> height: 0;<br /> width: 0;<br /> border: 3px solid transparent;<br /> border-top-color: #555;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown.trumbowyg-textual-button {<br /> padding-left: 10px !important;<br /> padding-right: 18px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown.trumbowyg-textual-button::after {<br /> top: 17px;<br /> right: 7px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-right {<br /> margin-left: auto;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown {<br /> max-width: 300px;<br /> max-height: 250px;<br /> overflow-y: auto;<br /> overflow-x: hidden;<br /> white-space: nowrap;<br /> border: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> padding: 5px 0;<br /> border-top: none;<br /> background: #fff;<br /> color: #222;<br /> margin-left: -1px;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.1) 0 2px 3px;<br /> z-index: 12;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button {<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> line-height: 35px;<br /> text-decoration: none;<br /> background: #fff;<br /> padding: 0 20px 0 10px;<br /> color: #222;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> text-align: left;<br /> font-size: 15px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button:hover, .trumbowyg-dropdown button:focus {<br /> background: #ecf0f1;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dropdown button svg {<br /> float: left;<br /> margin-right: 14px;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /* Modal box */<br /> .trumbowyg-modal {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 50%;<br /> -webkit-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -ms-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -o-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> max-width: 520px;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 350px;<br /> z-index: 12;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 50%;<br /> -webkit-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -ms-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> -o-transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> transform: translateX(-50%);<br /> max-width: 500px;<br /> width: calc(100% - 20px);<br /> padding-bottom: 45px;<br /> z-index: 1;<br /> background-color: #fff;<br /> text-align: center;<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) 0 2px 3px;<br /> -webkit-backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> backface-visibility: hidden;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-title {<br /> font-size: 24px;<br /> font-weight: bold;<br /> margin: 0 0 20px;<br /> padding: 15px 0 13px;<br /> display: block;<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #d7e0e2;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-progress {<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 3px;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> top: 58px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-progress .trumbowyg-progress-bar {<br /> background: #2BC06A;<br /> width: 0;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> -webkit-transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> -o-transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> transition: width 150ms linear;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row {<br /> position: relative;<br /> margin: 15px 12px;<br /> border: 1px solid #dedede;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos {<br /> text-align: left;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> width: 150px;<br /> border-right: 1px solid #dedede;<br /> padding: 0 7px;<br /> background-color: #fbfcfc;<br /> position: absolute;<br /> left: 0;<br /> top: 0;<br /> bottom: 0;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label {<br /> color: #69878f;<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos label span {<br /> display: block;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos .trumbowyg-msg-error {<br /> color: #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html {<br /> padding: 1px 1px 1px 152px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select {<br /> font-size: 14px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select {<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> height: 27px;<br /> line-height: 27px;<br /> border: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> padding: 0 7px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:focus {<br /> outline: 1px solid #95a5a6;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html textarea:focus, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html select:focus {<br /> background: #fbfcfc;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html input[type=checkbox] {<br /> width: 16px;<br /> height: 16px;<br /> padding: 0;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-html-with-checkbox {<br /> text-align: left;<br /> padding: 3px 1px 1px 3px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error input, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error select, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error textarea {<br /> outline: 1px solid #e74c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-error .trumbowyg-input-infos label span:first-child {<br /> margin-top: -27px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .error {<br /> margin-top: 25px;<br /> display: block;<br /> color: red;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> bottom: 10px;<br /> right: 0;<br /> text-decoration: none;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> display: block;<br /> width: 100px;<br /> height: 35px;<br /> line-height: 33px;<br /> margin: 0 10px;<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> border: none;<br /> cursor: pointer;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif;<br /> font-size: 16px;<br /> -webkit-transition: all 150ms;<br /> -o-transition: all 150ms;<br /> transition: all 150ms;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit {<br /> right: 110px;<br /> background: #2bc06a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:focus {<br /> background: #40d47e;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:active {<br /> background: #25a25a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset {<br /> color: #555;<br /> background: #e6e6e6;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:hover, .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:focus {<br /> background: #fbfbfb;<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:active {<br /> background: #d5d5d5;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> position: absolute;<br /> background-color: rgba(255, 255, 255, 0.5);<br /> height: 100%;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> left: 0;<br /> display: none;<br /> top: 0;<br /> z-index: 10;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /**<br /> * Fullscreen<br /> */<br /> body.trumbowyg-body-fullscreen {<br /> overflow: hidden;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> position: fixed;<br /> top: 0;<br /> left: 0;<br /> width: 100%;<br /> height: 100%;<br /> margin: 0;<br /> padding: 0;<br /> z-index: 99999;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen.trumbowyg-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-editor-box {<br /> border: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-editor-box,<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> height: auto !important;<br /> overflow: auto;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> height: 100% !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-button-group .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: #222;<br /> fill: transparent;<br /> }<br /> <br /> .trumbowyg-editor {<br /> /*<br /> * For resetCss option<br /> */<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor object,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor embed,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor video,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> max-width: 100%;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor video,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> height: auto;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor img {<br /> cursor: move;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor canvas:focus {<br /> outline: none;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css {<br /> background: #fefefe !important;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif !important;<br /> font-size: 14px !important;<br /> line-height: 1.45em !important;<br /> color: #333 !important;<br /> font-weight: normal !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css a {<br /> color: #15c !important;<br /> text-decoration: underline !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css div,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css p,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css blockquote {<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: none !important;<br /> box-shadow: none !important;<br /> background: none !important;<br /> margin: 0 !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> line-height: 1.4em !important;<br /> font-family: &quot;Trebuchet MS&quot;, Helvetica, Verdana, sans-serif !important;<br /> font-size: 14px !important;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css iframe,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css object,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css hr {<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css blockquote {<br /> margin-left: 32px !important;<br /> font-style: italic !important;<br /> color: #555 !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul {<br /> list-style: disc !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol {<br /> list-style: decimal !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol {<br /> padding-left: 20px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul ul,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ul ol,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css ol ul {<br /> border: none !important;<br /> margin: 2px !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> padding-left: 24px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css hr {<br /> display: block !important;<br /> height: 1px !important;<br /> border: none !important;<br /> border-top: 1px solid #CCC !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h1,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h2,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h3,<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h4 {<br /> color: #111 !important;<br /> background: none !important;<br /> margin: 0 !important;<br /> padding: 0 !important;<br /> font-weight: bold !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h1 {<br /> font-size: 32px !important;<br /> line-height: 38px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 20px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h2 {<br /> font-size: 26px !important;<br /> line-height: 34px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 15px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h3 {<br /> font-size: 22px !important;<br /> line-height: 28px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 7px !important;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-editor.trumbowyg-reset-css h4 {<br /> font-size: 16px !important;<br /> line-height: 22px !important;<br /> margin-bottom: 7px !important;<br /> }<br /> <br /> /*<br /> * Dark theme<br /> */<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-textarea {<br /> background: #222;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box {<br /> border: 1px solid #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-fullscreen {<br /> background: #111;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> text-shadow: 0 0 7px #ccc;<br /> }<br /> @media screen and (min-width: 0 \0 ) {<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(20, 20, 20, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> @supports (-ms-accelerator: true) {<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor *, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box.trumbowyg-box-blur .trumbowyg-editor::before {<br /> color: rgba(20, 20, 20, 0.6) !important;<br /> }<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-box svg {<br /> fill: #fff;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane {<br /> background-color: #222;<br /> border-bottom-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane::before, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane::after {<br /> background: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty)::after {<br /> background-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty) .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane.trumbowyg-disable .trumbowyg-button-group::after {<br /> background-color: #2a2a2a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):hover,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button:not(.trumbowyg-disable):focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane button.trumbowyg-active {<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-open-dropdown::after {<br /> border-top-color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-fullscreen .trumbowyg-button-pane .trumbowyg-button-group:not(:empty) .trumbowyg-fullscreen-button svg {<br /> color: #ecf0f1;<br /> fill: transparent;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown {<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> background: #333;<br /> -webkit-box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3) 0 2px 3px;<br /> box-shadow: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.3) 0 2px 3px;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button {<br /> background: #333;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-dropdown button:focus {<br /> background: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box {<br /> background-color: #333;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-title {<br /> border-bottom: 1px solid #555;<br /> color: #fff;<br /> background: #3c3c3c;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-row {<br /> border-color: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos {<br /> color: #eee;<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> border-right-color: #222;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-input-infos span {<br /> color: #eee;<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> border-color: #343434;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark 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/> border-color: #626262;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box input:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box select:focus,<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box textarea:focus {<br /> background-color: #2f2f2f;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit {<br /> background: #1b7943;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:focus {<br /> background: #25a25a;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-submit:active {<br /> background: #176437;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset {<br /> background: #333;<br /> color: #ccc;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:hover, .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:focus {<br /> background: #444;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-modal-box .trumbowyg-modal-button.trumbowyg-modal-reset:active {<br /> background: #111;<br /> }<br /> .trumbowyg-dark .trumbowyg-overlay {<br /> background-color: rgba(15, 15, 15, 0.6);<br /> }<br /> <br /> @font-face {<br /> font-family: AthanasuisPlain;<br /> src: url(https://oderalon.net/fonts/Athanasuis-Plain.ttf);<br /> }<br /> <br /> .coptic {<br /> font-family: AthanasuisPlain;<br /> }</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Conlangs/Dahur&diff=5389 Conlangs/Dahur 2026-10-17T12:25:45Z <p>Panglossa: /* Word Formation */</p> <hr /> <div>{{DISPLAYTITLE:Dahur}}<br /> {{RightTOC}}<br /> =Phonology=<br /> <br /> ==Vowels==<br /> <br /> Dahur vowels are usually short. Double vowels (ex.: aa, ee &amp;c.) may happen, but they are considered as simple vowel sequences.<br /> <br /> The following vowels qualities are distinguished: <br /> <br /> '''a''' '''e''' '''ɛ''' '''i''' '''o''' '''ɔ''' '''ø''' '''œ''' '''u''' '''y'''<br /> <br /> The diagram below shows the 10 vowels of Dahur.<br /> <br /> [[File:dahurvowels.png|link=]]<br /> <br /> In practice, the vowel /a/ may actually vary between /a/, /ä/ and /ɑ/.<br /> <br /> Merging of /ø/ and /œ/ is fairly common, especially in more informal contexts, as these two vowels mostly don't occur as minimal pair (except in a couple cases).<br /> <br /> ==Consonants==<br /> <br /> Dahur consonants are as follows: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;border-width:0px&quot;|<br /> !Bilabial<br /> !Labiodental<br /> !Alveolar<br /> !Postalveolar<br /> !Palatal<br /> !Velar<br /> !Glottal<br /> |-<br /> !Nasal<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''m'''<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''n'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Plosive<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''p''' '''b'''<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''t''' '''d'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''k''' '''g'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Sibilant fricative<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''s''' '''z'''<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''ʃ''' '''ʒ''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Non-sibilant fricative<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''f''' '''v''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''h'''<br /> |-<br /> !Approximant<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''j'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Tap/Flap/Trill<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''ɾ''' '''r''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Lateral Approx.<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''l'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The rhotic consonant ('''r''') is in free variation and may be realised either as a tap, a flap or a trill. The trill pronunciation (/r/) is more common at the beginning of a syllable, and even more so at the beginning of a word. The tap/flap pronunciation (/ɾ/) is more common in consonant clusters, especially after a plosive. <br /> <br /> In Dahur phonology, the combinations '''tr''' and '''kʃ''' count as single, independent consonants.<br /> <br /> ==Phonotactics==<br /> A syllable in Dahur must contain one vowel, which may be preceded and/or followed by any number of consonants. In practice, consonant clusters don't usually go beyond four consonants. For that account, '''kʃ''' and '''tɾ''' are always considered as single consonants. <br /> <br /> All consonant sequences are possible. However, in practice, some consonant combinations (ex. '''-hm-''', '''-tɾkʃ-''' &amp;c.) are rare.<br /> <br /> Some studies consider the existence of a glottal stop when a proper consonant is absent. This view is reflected in the writing, which has a special sign for the glottal stop / lack of a consonant. The last consonant of a syllable can be doubled. <br /> <br /> Examples of valid syllables: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''a'''<br /> | '''tɛ'''<br /> | '''en'''<br /> | '''wi'''<br /> | '''koj'''<br /> | '''gjɔ'''<br /> | '''pɾujn'''<br /> | '''kʃtɾa'''<br /> | '''fʃtlœmbz'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Stress==<br /> In the standard pronunciation, words are stressed on the next-to-last syllable. However, if the last syllable contains the consonant /tɾ/, it will be stressed.<br /> <br /> Ex.:<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''&lt;u&gt;ka&lt;/u&gt;nar''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/ˈka.nar/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''os&lt;u&gt;trøn&lt;/u&gt;dɛl''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/os.ˈtɾøn.dɛl/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''&lt;u&gt;tef&lt;/u&gt;ʃiv''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/ˈtef.ʃiv/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''da&lt;u&gt;sutɾ&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/daˈsutɾ/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''maʃkin&lt;u&gt;tɾod&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/maʃ.kinˈtɾod/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Doubled vowels in the last syllable may sound as a long, stressed vowel; however, they are actually two separate vowels, each one in a different syllable, with stress falling on the first one (or on the last, in case that syllable contains the consonant '''tr'''). It is not uncommon to hear an epenthetic '''h''', '''j''' or '''w''' between the two vowels.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kaj&lt;u&gt;na&lt;/u&gt;ar''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/kaj.ˈna.ar/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/kaj.ˈna.har/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> | '''pakisa&lt;u&gt;atr&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/pa.ki.sa.ˈatr/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/pa.ki.sa.ˈhatr/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> | '''tøndel&lt;u&gt;li&lt;/u&gt;in''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.in/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.jin/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.hin/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''talde&lt;u&gt;sy&lt;/u&gt;ys''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tal.de.ˈsy.ys/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tal.de.ˈsy.hys/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =Writing=<br /> <br /> [[Dahur script]] consists in an alphasyllabary consisting in separate letters indicating consonants, a combination of separate letters and diacritics to indicate vowels, as well as certain special letters for individual syllables.<br /> <br /> =Morphology=<br /> <br /> Dahur is a highly flexional language, with a strong presence of irregular forms.<br /> <br /> Nouns inflect for number, which is basically singular and plural, but there are also occurrences of dual (for things normally occurring in pairs) and singulative (for individual items of things usually found collectively). <br /> <br /> Nouns also inflect for case, usually: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, locative, instrumental, ergative and ablative. Instances of partitive and vocative are also found. The case called ergative is used basically for the agent of the passive voice.<br /> <br /> Adjectives show no agreement to nouns, and inflect for degree (comparatives of superiority, equality, inferiority; relative and absolute superlative).<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Nouns==<br /> <br /> <br /> === Class ===<br /> <br /> Dahurian nouns are divided in five classes, which can be compared to Latin or Greek declensions, as they consist in different inflection patterns, but may also be seen as a form of gender, as class is usually (but not always necessarily) related to the meaning of a noun. <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class 1<br /> |Living beings<br /> |-<br /> !Class 2<br /> |General objects<br /> |-<br /> !Class 3<br /> |Natural elements; insects<br /> |-<br /> !Class 4<br /> |Parts of human body; clothing<br /> |-<br /> !Class 5<br /> |Abstract nouns; traditional imaginary beings<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There are no morphological indications related to noun classes in the nominative singular. The differences appear along the inflection of nouns.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Number ===<br /> Nouns in Dahur have a singular and a plural. The plural ending varies according to noun class and to case. There is also a dual number, which is valid only for nouns normally occurring in pairs. Mass or collective nouns have a singulative inflection, but this is not very systematically indicated.<br /> <br /> <br /> So, for example:<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> !Dual<br /> !Singulative<br /> |-<br /> |class 1<br /> |'''grats'''<br /> &quot;boy&quot;<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> &quot;boys&quot;<br /> | -<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 2<br /> |'''kɛʃev'''<br /> &quot;hammer&quot;<br /> |'''kɛʃevlin'''<br /> &quot;hammers&quot;<br /> |'''kɛʃevs'''<br /> &quot;pair of hammers&quot; (traditionally used by blacksmiths)<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 3<br /> |'''halajn'''<br /> &quot;water&quot;<br /> |'''halejnn'''<br /> &quot;waters&quot; (i.e. in a flood)<br /> |'''halajns'''<br /> &quot;The Two Waters&quot; (the river Okanuma and the lake Kassanjas)<br /> |'''halajny'''<br /> &quot;a drop of water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |class 4<br /> |'''kanar'''<br /> &quot;eye&quot;<br /> |'''kanarni'''<br /> &quot;many eyes&quot; (mostly figuratively)<br /> |'''kanaris'''<br /> &quot;(two/both) eyes&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 4<br /> |'''kʃalim'''<br /> &quot;hair&quot;<br /> |'''kʃalimni'''<br /> &quot;(types of) hair&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |'''kʃalimy'''<br /> &quot;a (single) hair&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |class 5<br /> |'''astrønɛl'''<br /> &quot;idea&quot;<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> &quot;ideas&quot;<br /> |'''astrønɛls'''<br /> &quot;a couple ideas&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The plural in classes 1, 2 and 5 is usually regular, obtained with the respective suffixes ('''-en''', '''-lin''', '''-jan'''). <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 1<br /> |'''katlaj'''<br /> &quot;girlfriend&quot;<br /> |'''katlajen'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''dukʃatr'''<br /> &quot;boss&quot;<br /> |'''dukʃatren'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''egastɛv'''<br /> &quot;farmer&quot;<br /> |'''egastɛven'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 2<br /> |'''takoj'''<br /> &quot;pin&quot;<br /> |'''takojlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''uhpsan'''<br /> &quot;paper&quot;<br /> |'''uhpsanlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''dasutr'''<br /> &quot;document, file&quot;<br /> |'''dasutrlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 5<br /> |'''pɛktegal'''<br /> &quot;angel&quot;<br /> |'''pɛktegaljan'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ostrøndɛl'''<br /> &quot;interruption&quot;<br /> |'''ostrøndɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''piktaraʃ'''<br /> &quot;problem&quot;<br /> |'''piktaraʃjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In classes 3 and 4, besides the suffixes ('''-n''', '''-ni'''), most nouns suffer some sort of mutation, usually affecting only one vowel but non uncommonly consisting of more significative changes.<br /> <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 3<br /> |'''pakpaki'''<br /> &quot;louse&quot;<br /> |'''pakpɛkin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''pahalis'''<br /> &quot;leaf&quot;<br /> |'''pahaljen'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''tʃeptal'''<br /> &quot;cloud&quot;<br /> |'''tʃapatlin''', '''tʃaptlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 4<br /> |'''kraus'''<br /> &quot;ear&quot;<br /> |'''krojsni'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ɛmblew'''<br /> &quot;hat&quot;<br /> |'''ɛmbalni'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''krikter'''<br /> &quot;helmet&quot;<br /> |'''kruktni'''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Case ===<br /> Dahur nouns inflect for the following cases: <br /> * '''nominative''' (subject, predicative)<br /> * '''accusative''' (direct object, motion towards)<br /> * '''dative''' (indirect object)<br /> * '''genitive''' (possession, partitive, origin)<br /> * '''locative''' (location, placement)<br /> * '''instrumental''' (instrument, means, company)<br /> * '''ablative''' (adverbial)<br /> * '''ergative''' (agent of the passive voice)<br /> <br /> All cases except the nominative and the ergative can be used with prepositions.<br /> <br /> Certain nouns, mostly nouns indicating human beings, also show a vocative form, mostly formed with the ending '''-e''', but usually irregular. <br /> <br /> Certain nouns, for example nouns indicating mass or food, show a partitive case, usually formed with the ending '''-(i)t'''. <br /> <br /> <br /> === Inflection ===<br /> <br /> Noun declension in Dahur is quite regular, in terms of case and the less usual numbers, viz. the dual and the singulative.<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 1<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 2<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 3<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 4<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 5<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''-'''<br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-en'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-lin'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-n'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-is'''<br /> |'''-ni'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-an'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-lajn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-an'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-jas'''<br /> |'''-nja'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-un'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-lun'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-wan'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-ujs'''<br /> |'''-nu'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-ujn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''-ak'''<br /> |'''-ask'''<br /> |'''-ken'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ik'''<br /> |'''-isk'''<br /> |'''-link'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-aʃ'''<br /> |'''-ʃas'''<br /> |'''-ʃan'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-iʃ'''<br /> |'''-siʃ'''<br /> |'''-niʃ'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ik'''<br /> |'''-isk'''<br /> |'''-jank'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-emb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-limb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-emb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-bis'''<br /> |'''-nibb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-jamb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-nom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-lom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-nom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-joms'''<br /> |'''-njom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-njom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-nɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-lɛnv''', '''-lɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-nɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-jɛfs'''<br /> |'''-njɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-njɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-løtr'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-sjøtr'''<br /> |'''-trøjn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøjn'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> &lt;!---<br /> * The '''nominative''' case is the basic form of nouns.<br /> * The '''accusative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-a'''. <br /> * The '''dative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-si'''.<br /> * The '''genitive''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ak''' for animate intelligent beings, '''-iʃ''' for animals, '''-is''' for concrete objects and '''-ɔn''' for abstract things.<br /> * The '''locative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-us'''. With animate nouns, the locative can mean &quot;on&quot;, or &quot;with&quot;, as in &quot;carrying with&quot;. <br /> * The '''instrumental''' case is indicated by the enging '''-em''' for animate intelligent beings, '''-om''' for animals, '''-um''' for things.<br /> * The '''ergative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-øtr'''. <br /> * The '''ablative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ɛv'''. <br /> --&gt;<br /> <br /> When an ending starting with a vowel is applied, a final '''-i''' becomes '''-j-''', and a final '''-u''' becomes '''-w-'''; otherwise, an '''-h-''' is added. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''dula''' &quot;babysitter&quot;, '''dulahen''' &quot;babysitters&quot;<br /> * '''agdari''' &quot;prisoner&quot;, '''agdarjen''' &quot;prisoners&quot;<br /> * '''pakpaki''' &quot;louse&quot;, '''pakpakja''' &quot;louse (accus.)&quot;, '''pakpakjaʃ''' &quot;of a louse&quot;, '''pakpakjom''' &quot;by a louse&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> In the following tables, you have some examples of nouns of the various classes, fully inflected for number and case.<br /> <br /> * Class 1: '''grats''' &quot;boy&quot; <br /> * Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' &quot;hammer&quot; <br /> * Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' &quot;cloud&quot; <br /> * Class 4: '''kraus''' &quot;ear&quot; <br /> * Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' &quot;idea&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 1: '''grats''' &quot;boy&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''grats'''<br /> |'''gratss'''<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''gratsa'''<br /> |'''gratsas'''<br /> |'''gratsan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''gratsu'''<br /> |'''gratsus'''<br /> |'''gratsun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''gratsak'''<br /> |'''gratsask'''<br /> |'''gratsken'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''gratsebb'''<br /> |'''gratseps'''<br /> |'''gratsemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''gratsom'''<br /> |'''gratsoms'''<br /> |'''gratsnom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''gratsɛv'''<br /> |'''gratsɛfs'''<br /> |'''gratsnɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''gratsøtr'''<br /> |'''gratssøtr'''<br /> |'''gratsetrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Vocative<br /> |'''gratse'''<br /> |'''gratses'''<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' &quot;hammer&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''kɛʃev'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevs'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlin'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''kɛʃeva'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevas'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlajn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''kɛʃevu'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevus'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''kɛʃevik'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevisk'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlink'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''kɛʃevebb'''<br /> |'''kɛʃeveps'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlimb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''kɛʃevom'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevoms'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''kɛʃevɛv'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevɛfs'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlɛnv''', '''kɛʃevlɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''kɛʃevøtr'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevsøtr'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevløtr'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' &quot;cloud&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''tʃeptal'''<br /> |'''tʃeptals'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlin'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''tʃeptala'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalas'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlijan''', '''tʃaptljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''tʃeptalu'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalus'''<br /> |'''tʃaptliwan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''tʃeptalaʃ'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalʃas'''<br /> |'''tʃaptliʃan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''tʃeptalebb'''<br /> |'''tʃeptaleps'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlijemb''', '''tʃaptljemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''tʃeptalom'''<br /> |'''tʃeptaloms'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlinom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''tʃeptalɛv'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalɛfs'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlinɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''tʃeptaløtr'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalsøtr'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlitrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''tʃeptalt'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalts'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlint'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 4: '''kraus''' &quot;ear&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''kraus'''<br /> |'''krausis'''<br /> |'''krojsni'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''krausa'''<br /> |'''krausjas'''<br /> |'''krojsnja'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''krausu'''<br /> |'''krausujs'''<br /> |'''krojsnu'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''krausiʃ'''<br /> |'''kraussiʃ'''<br /> |'''krojsniʃ'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''krausebb'''<br /> |'''krauseps'''<br /> |'''krojsnibb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''krausom'''<br /> |'''krausoms'''<br /> |'''krojsnjom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''krausɛv'''<br /> |'''krausɛfs'''<br /> |'''krojsnjɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''krausøtr'''<br /> |'''krausjøtr'''<br /> |'''krojstrøjn'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' &quot;idea&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''astrønɛls'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''astrønɛla'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlas'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''astrønɛlu'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlus'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlujn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''astrønɛlik'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlisk'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljank'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''astrønɛlebb'''<br /> |'''astrønɛleps'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljamb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''astrønɛlom'''<br /> |'''astrønɛloms'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlnjom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''astrønɛlɛv'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlɛfs'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlnjɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''astrønɛløtr'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlsøtr'''<br /> |'''astrønɛltrøjn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''astrønɛlt'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlts'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljant'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Articles ==<br /> <br /> === Definite Article === <br /> <br /> The definite article inflects for case and number, and is quite irregular. <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> !Singulative <br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''tru'''<br /> |'''gas'''<br /> |'''tann'''<br /> |'''try'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''na'''<br /> |'''ga'''<br /> |'''ta'''<br /> |'''ny'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''kʃu'''<br /> |'''gu'''<br /> |'''tun'''<br /> |'''kʃu'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''kis'''<br /> |'''gak'''<br /> |'''tak'''<br /> |'''kis'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''debb'''<br /> |'''gebb'''<br /> |'''tebb'''<br /> |'''debb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''trom'''<br /> |'''gom'''<br /> |'''tom'''<br /> |'''trom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative <br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |'''gɛv'''<br /> |'''tɛv'''<br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''trø'''<br /> |'''gøtr'''<br /> |'''tøtr'''<br /> |'''trø'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Indefinite Article === <br /> <br /> Dahur has no proper indefinite article. <br /> <br /> If it's really necessary to mark a noun phrase as indefinite, an indefinite pronoun may be used. The most common is '''lum''' (invariable), meaning &quot;some&quot;, &quot;a certain&quot; &amp;c.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Prepositions ==<br /> <br /> Prepositions in Dahur require the noun in one of the following cases: <br /> <br /> * accusative<br /> * dative<br /> * genitive<br /> * ablative<br /> * instrumental<br /> * locative<br /> <br /> The nominative and the ergative are '''never''' used with prepositions. <br /> <br /> In the table below you have the most common Dahur prepositions: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Preposition<br /> !Case<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''dun'''<br /> |''locative'', ''accusative of movement''<br /> |inside<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''yin'''<br /> |''dative''<br /> |for, in behalf of<br /> |-<br /> |''accusative''<br /> |towards<br /> |-<br /> |'''ari''', '''ar'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |from, out of<br /> |-<br /> |'''yuʃ'''<br /> |''genitive'', ''ablative''<br /> |because of<br /> |-<br /> |'''vøj'''<br /> |''locative''<br /> |through<br /> |-<br /> |'''syn'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |near<br /> |-<br /> |'''kʃe'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |since, ago<br /> |-<br /> |'''pɛn'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |besides, next to<br /> |-<br /> |'''lujg'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |in front of<br /> |-<br /> |'''mœh'''<br /> |''ablative''<br /> |without<br /> |-<br /> |'''sto'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |on, on top of<br /> |-<br /> |'''krɔj'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |under<br /> |-<br /> |'''tjɛs'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |before (time)<br /> |-<br /> |'''gwaj'''<br /> |''accusative''<br /> |after (time)<br /> |-<br /> |'''fyj'''<br /> |''ablative''<br /> |during<br /> |-<br /> |'''vlen'''<br /> |''instrumental''<br /> |despite<br /> |-<br /> |'''uhk'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |except<br /> |-<br /> |'''uzd'''<br /> |''dative''<br /> |instead of<br /> |-<br /> |'''blas'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |behind<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> * '''yin na hedana''' &quot;towards the house&quot;<br /> * '''dun na hedana''' &quot;into the house&quot;<br /> * '''ar kis hedanik''' &quot;from the house&quot;, &quot;out of the house&quot;<br /> * '''syn debb hedanebb''' &quot;near the house&quot;<br /> * '''syn na hedana''' &quot;going near of the house&quot;<br /> * '''pɛn debb hedanebb''' &quot;besides the house&quot;, &quot;next to the house&quot;<br /> * '''pɛn na hedana''' &quot;going next to the house&quot;<br /> * '''lujg debb hedanebb''' &quot;in front to the house&quot;<br /> * '''lujg na hedana''' &quot;going to the front of the house&quot;<br /> * '''mœh dɛv hedanɛv''' &quot;without the house&quot;<br /> * '''sto debb hedanebb''' &quot;on top of the house&quot;<br /> * '''sto na hedana''' &quot;going onto (the top of) the house&quot;<br /> * '''krɔj debb hedanebb''' &quot;under the house&quot;<br /> * '''uzd kʃu hedanu''' &quot;instead of the house&quot;<br /> * '''blas debb hedanebb''' &quot;behind the house&quot;<br /> * '''blas na hedana''' &quot;going behind the house&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> == Adjectives ==<br /> <br /> === Attributive Adjectives ===<br /> Attributive adjectives in Dahur are invariable and come before the noun. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''fɛren grats''' &quot;a smart boy&quot;<br /> * '''duʃ halajn''' &quot;clean water&quot;<br /> * '''selak kanaris''' &quot;pretty eyes&quot;<br /> <br /> A few attributes may be expressed by affixes to the noun, instead of the separate adjective. The most common ones are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar'''<br /> |'''-os''' <br /> (usually deleting the last vowel of the original noun)<br /> |&quot;big&quot;, &quot;large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr'''<br /> |'''-in-''' <br /> (before the last vowel of the or. noun)<br /> |&quot;small&quot;, &quot;little&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani'''<br /> |'''-(t)ta-''' <br /> (before the second vowel of the or. noun)<br /> |&quot;good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''<br /> |'''-aar'''<br /> |&quot;bad&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !With Adjective<br /> !With Affixed Form<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''piktarʃos''' <br /> |&quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''piktarinaʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a little problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''attastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a good idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlaar'''<br /> |&quot;a bad idea&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Certain adjectives have a special, shortened form, which is prefixed to nouns when used attributively. <br /> The most common ones are: <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar'''<br /> |'''nah-''' <br /> |&quot;big&quot;, &quot;large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr'''<br /> |'''ki-''' <br /> (doubles the initial consonant of the noun)<br /> |&quot;small&quot;, &quot;little&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani'''<br /> |'''suw-''' ('''suww-''' before vowels)<br /> |&quot;good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''<br /> |'''dag-''' ('''dagg-''' before vowels)<br /> |&quot;bad&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin'''<br /> |'''sin-''' <br /> |&quot;new&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ'''<br /> |'''dom-''' <br /> |&quot;old&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''mahhalis'''<br /> |'''mah-''' <br /> |&quot;ancient&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''', '''makʃølin'''<br /> |'''møkʃ-''' <br /> |&quot;important&quot;, &quot;great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan'''<br /> |'''tos-''', '''tan-''' <br /> |&quot;beautiful&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki'''<br /> |'''killi-''' <br /> |&quot;false&quot;, &quot;fake&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !With Adjective<br /> !With Prefix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''nahpiktaraʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''kippiktaraʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a small problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''suwwastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a good idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''daggastrønɛl'''<br /> |&quot;a bad idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin dasutr'''<br /> |'''sindasutr''' <br /> |&quot;a new document&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ hedan'''<br /> |'''domhedan''' <br /> |&quot;an old house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''mahhalis kataʃtevan'''<br /> |'''mahkataʃtevan''' <br /> |&quot;an ancient civilization&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen dasutr''', '''makʃølin dasutr'''<br /> |'''møkʃdasutr''' <br /> |&quot;an important document&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen astrønɛl''', '''makʃølin astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''møkʃastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a great idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan dummal'''<br /> |'''tosdummal''', '''tandummal''' <br /> |&quot;a beautiful song&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki bɔrakʃ'''<br /> |'''killibɔrakʃ''' <br /> |&quot;false news&quot;, &quot;fake news&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Predicative Adjectives ===<br /> <br /> An adjective used in predicative function is invariable. Only the full forms of adjectives can be used predicatively. <br /> <br /> Usually a linking verb is employed. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru astrønɛl laje makʃølen.''' || The idea is great.<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru grats alanje befitra.''' || The boy is tired.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is also the possibility of turning adjectives into verbs. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru astrønɛl makʃølnaje.''' || The idea is great.<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru grats abefitranje.''' || The boy is tired.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The most common way to make an adjective into a verb, implying the idea of &quot;be&quot;, is the suffix '''-a-''', which may cause some change in the last syllable of the original adjective. If the adjective already ends in '''-a''', there is no change. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''' <br /> &quot;great&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølna''' <br /> &quot;be great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;be tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani''' <br /> &quot;good&quot;<br /> |'''suwanja''' <br /> &quot;be good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''' <br /> &quot;bad&quot;<br /> |'''daggusa''' <br /> &quot;be bad&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin''' <br /> &quot;new&quot;<br /> |'''sulna''', '''sinna''' <br /> &quot;be new&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ''' <br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dɛtra''' <br /> &quot;be old&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan''' <br /> &quot;beautiful&quot;<br /> |'''tossana''', '''tosna''' <br /> &quot;be beautiful&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''trapter''' <br /> &quot;unique&quot;<br /> |'''traptra''' <br /> &quot;be unique&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃɔtma''' <br /> &quot;sure&quot;, &quot;certain&quot;<br /> |'''ʃɔtama''' <br /> &quot;be sure&quot;, &quot;be certain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kanikli''' <br /> &quot;appropriate&quot;<br /> |'''kankilja''' <br /> &quot;be appropriate&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tubbar''' <br /> &quot;white&quot;<br /> |'''tubabra''' <br /> &quot;be white&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kindis''' <br /> &quot;clear&quot;<br /> |'''kinitsa''' <br /> &quot;be clear&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''turu'''<br /> &quot;wrong&quot;<br /> |'''turva''', '''terva'''<br /> &quot;be wrong&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''divlaas'''<br /> &quot;sick, ill&quot;<br /> |'''dulaasa'''<br /> &quot;be sick, be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tadʒon'''<br /> &quot;pleased&quot;<br /> |'''todʒna'''<br /> &quot;be pleased&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''eskataʃi'''<br /> &quot;acquainted&quot;<br /> |'''eskataʃʃa''', '''eskatʃa'''<br /> &quot;be acquainted&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Another suffix is '''-(a)st(a)-''', meaning &quot;to get&quot; or &quot;to become&quot;. The first optional '''-a-''' appears when necessary, to avoid unsuitable consonant clusters, while the final '''-a''' is only used in the infinitive form of the verb - i.e., without any suffixes. There are some irregular formations.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''' <br /> &quot;great&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølnasta''' <br /> &quot;become great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitrasta''' <br /> &quot;get tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar''' <br /> &quot;big, large&quot;<br /> |'''nahasta''', '''narasta''' <br /> &quot;get big&quot;, &quot;increase&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr''' <br /> &quot;little, small&quot;<br /> |'''kitrasta''', '''katrasta''', '''kirrasta''' <br /> &quot;get smaller&quot;, &quot;decrease&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani''' <br /> &quot;good&quot;<br /> |'''suwanasta'''<br /> &quot;become good&quot;<br /> <br /> '''suwasta''', '''sawasta''', '''suwnasta''' <br /> <br /> &quot;get better&quot;, &quot;improve&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''' , '''daggussa'''<br /> &quot;bad&quot;<br /> |'''daggusasta''', '''daggussasta''' <br /> &quot;become bad&quot;<br /> <br /> '''daggasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get worse&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ'''<br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛsta'''<br /> &quot;become old&quot;<br /> <br /> '''dotrasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get older&quot;, &quot;to age&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan'''<br /> &quot;beautiful<br /> |'''tossanasta'''<br /> &quot;become beautiful&quot;<br /> <br /> '''tossasta''', '''tosnasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get prettier&quot;, &quot;beautify&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki'''<br /> &quot;false&quot;, &quot;fake&quot;<br /> |'''ablikasta'''<br /> &quot;become invalid&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''divlaas'''<br /> &quot;sick, ill&quot;<br /> |'''dulaasta'''<br /> &quot;be sick, be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''eskataʃi'''<br /> &quot;acquainted&quot;<br /> |'''eskatʃasta'''<br /> &quot;get acquainted&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> A few other suffixes perform similar tasks, with more specific meanings. These are usually quite regular. The most productive among these suffixes are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-we'''<br /> |&quot;to remain&quot;, &quot;still be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-kas'''<br /> |&quot;to seem&quot;, &quot;to appear&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-ʃyn'''<br /> |&quot;to pretend to be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-dobb(a)-'''<br /> |&quot;to cease to be&quot;, &quot;to be no longer&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-guj'''<br /> |&quot;to be a little bit&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''nøssar''' <br /> &quot;calm&quot;<br /> |'''nøssarwe''' &quot;remain calm&quot;, &quot;keep calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarkaʃ''' &quot;seem/appear calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarʃyn''' &quot;pretend to be calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssardobba''' &quot;cease to be calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarguj''' &quot;be a little calm&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ''' <br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛkaʃ''' &quot;seem/appear old&quot;<br /> <br /> '''dotrɛguj''' &quot;be a little old&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Comparative === <br /> The comparative of superiority of an adjective can be made by adding the suffix '''-ju''' to the stem. This suffix doubles a preceeding consonant, or becomes '''-jju''' when preceeded by a vowel. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''fɛrennju grats''' &quot;a smarter boy&quot;<br /> * '''duʃʃju halajn''' &quot;cleaner water&quot;<br /> * '''selakkju kanaris''' &quot;prettier eyes&quot;<br /> * '''naharrju piktaraʃ''' &quot;a bigger problem&quot;<br /> * '''kittrju piktaraʃ''' &quot;a smaller problem&quot; <br /> * '''suwanijju astrønɛl''' &quot;a better idea&quot;<br /> * '''daggussju''' / '''daggussajju astrønɛl''' &quot;a worse idea&quot;<br /> * '''dotrɛjju pɛten''' &quot;an older book&quot;<br /> <br /> Comparative adjectives may be turned into verbs regularly with the suffix '''-a''', which then becomes '''-wa'''. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølennju''' <br /> &quot;greater&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølennjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be greater&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitrajju''' <br /> &quot;more tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitrajjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be more tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwanijju''' <br /> &quot;better&quot;<br /> |'''suwanijjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be better&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulinnju''' <br /> &quot;newer&quot;<br /> |'''sulinnjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be newer&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛjju''' <br /> &quot;older&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛjjuwa'''<br /> &quot;be older&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossannju''' <br /> &quot;more beautiful&quot;<br /> |'''tossannjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be more beautiful&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The complement of a comparison, corresponding to the conjunction &quot;than&quot;, is placed in the ablative case. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''Nuv pɛten laej suwanijju tuhafɛv.''' &quot;This book is better than that one&quot;<br /> * '''Nuv pɛten suwanijjuwaej tuhafɛv.''' (idem)<br /> * '''Tru dukʃatr laej dotrɛjju dɛv egastɛvɛv.''' &quot;The boss is older than the farmer&quot;<br /> * '''Tru dukʃatr dotrɛjjuwaej dɛv egastɛvɛv.''' (idem)<br /> <br /> == Numerals ==<br /> The basic cardinal numbers are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |0 || '''kal''', '''kahtral'''<br /> |-<br /> |1 || '''mihen'''<br /> |-<br /> |2 || '''dahas'''<br /> |-<br /> |3 || '''travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |4 || '''gazen'''<br /> |-<br /> |5 || '''kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |6 || '''pinjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |7 || '''høtak'''<br /> |-<br /> |8 || '''magɛl'''<br /> |-<br /> |9 || '''donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |10 || '''zɛhɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |11 || '''zɛhɛv mihen''', '''zɛvhen'''<br /> |-<br /> |12 || '''zɛhɛv dahas''', '''zɛvdas'''<br /> |-<br /> |13 || '''zɛhɛv travis''', '''zɛvtras'''<br /> |-<br /> |14 || '''zɛhɛv gazen''', '''zɛvzen'''<br /> |-<br /> |15 || '''zɛhɛv kɛʃav''', '''zɛvkʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |16 || '''zɛhɛv pinjan''', '''zɛvpan'''<br /> |-<br /> |17 || '''zɛhɛv høtak''','''zɛvhøk'''<br /> |-<br /> |18 || '''zɛhɛv magɛl''', '''zɛvmal'''<br /> |-<br /> |19 || '''zɛhɛv donwaʒ''', '''zɛvdaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |20 || '''dahassɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |30 || '''travissɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |40 || '''gazennɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |50 || '''kɛʃavvɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |60 || '''pinjannɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |70 || '''høtakkɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |80 || '''magɛllɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |90 || '''donwaʒʒɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |100 || '''lakin'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,000 || '''tatrimi'''<br /> |-<br /> |10,000 || '''zɛhɛv tatrimi'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Numbers are composed by joining the base units above, from bigger to lower. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |23 || '''dahassɛv travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |45 || '''gazennɛv kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |67 || '''pinjannɛv høtak'''<br /> |-<br /> |89 || '''magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |123 || '''lakin dahassɛv travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |456 || '''gazen lakin kɛʃavvɛv pinjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |789 || '''høtak lakin magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,234 || '''tatrimi dahas lakin travissɛv gazen'''<br /> |-<br /> |5,678 || '''kɛʃav tatrimi pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl'''<br /> |-<br /> |12,345 || '''zɛvdas tatrimi travis lakin gazennɛv kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |678,910 || '''pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl tatrimi donwaʒ lakin zɛhɛv'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Ordinal numbers are created with the suffix '''-iki'''. Ex.: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |1st || '''miheniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |2nd || '''dahasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |3rd || '''travisiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |4th || '''gazeniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |5th || '''kɛʃaviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |6th || '''pinjaniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |7th || '''høtakiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |8th || '''magɛliki'''<br /> |-<br /> |9th || '''donwaʒiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |10th || '''zɛhɛviki''', '''zɛhviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |11th || '''zɛvheniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |12th || '''zɛvdasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |13th || '''zɛvtrasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |14th || '''zɛvzeniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |15th || '''zɛvkʃaviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |16th || '''zɛvpaniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |17th || '''zɛvhøkiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |18th || '''zɛvmaliki'''<br /> |-<br /> |19th || '''zɛvdaʒiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |20th || '''dahassɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |30th || '''travissɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |40th || '''gazennɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |50th || '''kɛʃavvɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |60th || '''pinjannɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |70th || '''høtakkɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |80th || '''magɛllɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |90th || '''donwaʒʒɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |100th || '''lakiniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,000th || '''tatrimiiki'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Pronouns ==<br /> <br /> === Personal Pronouns ===<br /> Personal Pronouns in Dahur indicate person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and number (singular, dual, plural).<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|1st Person<br /> |'''dɛ''' &quot;I&quot; , &quot;me&quot;<br /> |'''ʃes''' &quot;we both&quot;<br /> |'''ʃɛn''' &quot;we&quot;, &quot;us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''dɛ'''<br /> |'''ʃes'''<br /> |'''ʃɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''dɛa''', '''da'''<br /> |'''ʃeas''', '''ʃas'''<br /> |'''ʃan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''dɛw''', '''du'''<br /> |'''ʃeus''', '''ʃews''', '''ʃus'''<br /> |'''ʃɛun''', '''ʃɛwn''', '''ʃun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''dɛk'''<br /> |'''ʃesk'''<br /> |'''ʃɛkɛn''', '''ʃkɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''dɛbb'''<br /> |'''ʃeps'''<br /> |'''ʃɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''dɛm'''<br /> |'''ʃems'''<br /> |'''ʃɛom''', '''ʃom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |'''ʃɛfs'''<br /> |'''ʃɛɛv''', '''ʃɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''dɛjøtr''', '''dɛtr'''<br /> |'''ʃesøtr'''<br /> |'''ʃɛtrøn''', '''ʃtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''dɛt'''<br /> |'''ʃets'''<br /> |'''ʃɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|2nd Person<br /> |'''hej''' &quot;you (sg.), thou&quot;<br /> |'''kwes''' &quot;you both&quot;<br /> |'''kwɛn''' &quot;you (pl.)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''hej'''<br /> |'''kwes'''<br /> |'''kwɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''heja''', '''ja'''<br /> |'''kweas''', '''kwas'''<br /> |'''kwɛan''', '''kwan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''heju''', '''ju'''<br /> |'''kweus'''<br /> |'''kwɛun''', '''kun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''heik''', '''hejik'''<br /> |'''kwesk'''<br /> |'''kwɛnek''', '''kwɛnk'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''heibb''', '''hibb'''<br /> |'''kweps'''<br /> |'''kwɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''heim''', '''him'''<br /> |'''kwems'''<br /> |'''kwɛom''', '''kwɛm''', '''kwom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''hejɛv''', '''jɛv'''<br /> |'''kwɛfs'''<br /> |'''kwɛɛv''', '''kwɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''hejøtr''', '''hjøtr'''<br /> |'''kwesøtr'''<br /> |'''kwɛtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Vocative<br /> |'''heje'''<br /> |'''kwejes'''<br /> |'''kwɛjɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''hɛt'''<br /> |'''kwets'''<br /> |'''kwɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|3rd Person<br /> |'''nar''' &quot;he&quot;, &quot;she&quot;, &quot;it&quot;<br /> |'''ras''' &quot;they both&quot;<br /> |'''ren''' &quot;they&quot;, &quot;them&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''nar'''<br /> |'''ras'''<br /> |'''rɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''nara''', '''ra'''<br /> |'''ras'''<br /> |'''rɛan''', '''ran'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''naru''', '''ru'''<br /> |'''raus''', '''raws''', '''rus'''<br /> |'''rɛun''', '''rɛwn''', '''run'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''narɛk''', '''rɛk'''<br /> |'''resk'''<br /> |'''rɛkɛn''', '''ɛrken'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''narebb''', '''rebb'''<br /> |'''reps'''<br /> |'''rɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''narom''', '''rom'''<br /> |'''rems'''<br /> |'''rɛnom''', '''rom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''narɛv''', '''rɛv'''<br /> |'''rɛfs'''<br /> |'''rɛɛv''', '''rɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''narøtr''', '''røtr'''<br /> |'''resøtr'''<br /> |'''rɛtrøn''', '''ɛrtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''rɛt'''<br /> |'''rets'''<br /> |'''rɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The '''genitive''' forms work as possessive pronouns. In that case, the definite article is optional. Ex.: <br /> * '''tru dɛk astrønɛl''', '''dɛk astrønɛl''' &quot;my idea&quot;<br /> * '''na heik kʃalima''', '''heik kʃalima''' &quot;your hair (accus.)&quot;<br /> * '''trom narɛk kɛʃevom''', '''narɛk kɛʃevom''' &quot;with his/her hammer (instr.)&quot;<br /> * '''tu dɛk menirun''', '''dɛk menirun''' &quot;to my children (dat.)&quot;<br /> <br /> Object pronouns usually come before the verb. The shorter, unstressed version is preferred. Ex.: <br /> * '''Ja angenus.''' &quot;I can see you (sing.).&quot;<br /> * '''Kwas angenus.''' &quot;I can see you two.&quot;<br /> * '''Kwan angenus.''' &quot;I can see you (pl.).&quot;<br /> * '''Ra angenus.''' &quot;I can see it/him/her.&quot;<br /> * '''Ras angenus.''' &quot;I can see them both.&quot;<br /> * '''Ran angenus.''' &quot;I can see them.&quot;<br /> * '''Da angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see me.&quot;<br /> * '''ʃas angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see us both.&quot;<br /> * '''ʃan angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see us.&quot;<br /> <br /> An object pronoun may also appear after the verb. In that case, the preference is for the longer, stressed versions. Ex.:<br /> * '''Angenus ja/heja.''' &quot;I can see you (sing.).&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus kweas/kwas.''' &quot;I can see you two.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus kwɛan/kwan.''' &quot;I can see you (pl.).&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus nara/ra.''' &quot;I can see it/him/her.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus ras.''' &quot;I can see them both.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus rɛan/ran.''' &quot;I can see them.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej dɛa/da.''' &quot;He/she can see me.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej ʃeas/ʃas.''' &quot;He/she can see us both.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej ʃan.''' &quot;He/she can see us.&quot;<br /> <br /> The most common case for a verb complement is the accusative. However, verbs may require different cases. Ex.: <br /> * '''Kun dagsuttoj!''' &quot;It will harm you!&quot; / &quot;It will be harmful to you!&quot; ('''dagusta''' &quot;harm, be harmful&quot; + dat.)<br /> * '''Ja/Ju darʃinɔn.''' &quot;We trust you.&quot; ('''darʃin''' &quot;trust&quot; + acc./dat.)<br /> * '''Poglattindsa narɛv/rɛv''' &quot;I didn't use it.&quot; ('''poglar''' &quot;use&quot; + abl.)<br /> * '''Ra twiʃnettmis.''' &quot;You drank it (all).&quot; / '''Rɛt twiʃnettmis.''' &quot;You drank (some of) it.&quot; '''twiʃin''' &quot;drink&quot; +acc. (whole), +part. (specific amount)<br /> <br /> === Demonstrative Pronouns ===<br /> The main demonstrative pronouns are: <br /> <br /> * '''nuv''' &quot;this, these&quot;<br /> * '''tuhaf''' &quot;that, those&quot;<br /> <br /> When accompanying a noun, they behave as adjectives and are not inflected. <br /> <br /> When used on their own, they stand as nouns and are inflected according to the class of the intended noun. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''Nuv grats laej fɛrennju nuvɛv.''' &quot;This boy is smarter than this one.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> === Interrogative Pronouns ===<br /> <br /> === Indefinite Pronouns ===<br /> <br /> === Relative Pronoun ===<br /> The main relative pronoun in Dahur is '''jao''', as shown in the following table. <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''jao'''<br /> |'''jes'''<br /> |'''jen'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''jaa''', '''ja'''<br /> |'''jeas''', '''jas'''<br /> |'''jaan''', '''jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''jau''', '''jaw'''<br /> |'''jeus''', '''jews'''<br /> |'''jeun''', '''jewn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''jak'''<br /> |'''jesk'''<br /> |'''jenk'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''jaebb'''<br /> |'''jaeps'''<br /> |'''jaemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''jaom'''<br /> |'''jaoms'''<br /> |'''jaom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''jaɛv'''<br /> |'''jaɛfs'''<br /> |'''janɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''jaøtr'''<br /> |'''jasøtr'''<br /> |'''jatrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> | - <br /> |'''jets'''<br /> |'''jent'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The pronoun agrees in number with the antecedent, but its case is determined by its function in the subordinate clause. Ex.:<br /> * '''tru grats jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;the boy (nom.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''na gratsa jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;the boy (accus.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''kʃu gratsu jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;to the boy (dat.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''kis gratsak jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;of the boy (gen.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''trø gratsøtr jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;by the boy (erg.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''tann gratsen jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;the boys (nom.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''ta gratsan jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;the boys (accus.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tun gratsun jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;to the boys (dat.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tak gratsken jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr gratsetrøn jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tru grats jaa kahettsa''' &quot;the boy (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''na gratsa jaa kahettsa''' &quot;the boy (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''kʃu gratsu jaa kahettsa''' &quot;to the boy (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''kis gratsak jaa kahettsa''' &quot;of the boy (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''trø gratsøtr jaa kahettsa''' &quot;by the boy (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tann gratsen jaan kahettsa''' &quot;the boys (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''ta gratsan jaan kahettsa''' &quot;the boys (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tun gratsun jaan kahettsa''' &quot;to the boys (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tak gratsken jaan kahettsa''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr gratsetrøn jaan kahettsa''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> <br /> Besides this pronoun, relative clauses may also be formed with participles. <br /> <br /> Ex.:<br /> <br /> * '''tru ateʃfanur grats''' &quot;the boy (nom.) who is running away&quot; <br /> * '''na ateʃfanur gratsa''' &quot;the boy (accus.) who is running away&quot; <br /> * '''tak ateʃfanur gratsken''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) who are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tru dɛtr kahettek grats''', '''tru grats dɛtr kahettek''' &quot;the boy (nom.) whom I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr dɛtr kahettek gratsetrøn''', '''tøtr gratsetrøn dɛtr kahettek''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) whom I saw&quot;<br /> <br /> == Verbs ==<br /> <br /> === Finite Forms ===<br /> <br /> Verbs in Dahur have different stems indicating aspect. The conjugation uses different sets of endings to indicate tense or time. <br /> <br /> The basic verb stems are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Aspect<br /> !Meaning<br /> !Form<br /> |-<br /> |Generic<br /> |''verbal idea without a specific context, time or aspect''<br /> |the basic stem of the verb<br /> |-<br /> |Cursive (Progressive; Continuous)<br /> |''action ongoing at the moment of reference<br /> |prefix '''a-''' and suffix '''-(a)n-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Aorist<br /> |''a complete or punctual action''<br /> |suffix '''-(e)tt-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Perfect<br /> |''the result of an action that happened before the reference time''<br /> |suffix '''-(l)l(a)-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Unrealised (Future)<br /> |''action as not realised in relation to the reference time''<br /> |prefix '''u-''' and suffix '''-(u)ʃ-''' <br /> |-<br /> |Conditional<br /> |''irrealis, usually an action depending on another''<br /> |prefix '''i-''' (doubling the initial consonant) and suffix '''-i-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Stem formation is often irregular. <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Generic<br /> !Cursive<br /> !Aorist<br /> !Perfect<br /> !Unrealised<br /> !Conditional <br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmal-'''<br /> |'''akʃmalan-'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalett-'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalla-'''<br /> |'''ukaʃmaluʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkaʃmali-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''la-'''<br /> |'''alan-'''<br /> |'''latt-'''<br /> |'''lalla-'''<br /> |'''ulauʃ-'''<br /> |'''illai-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''wennin''' &quot;live&quot; <br /> |'''wennin-'''<br /> |'''awann-'''<br /> |'''wennett-'''<br /> |'''wennilla-'''<br /> |'''uwenninʃ-'''<br /> |'''iwennini-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadra-'''<br /> |'''agandran-'''<br /> |'''gadrett-'''<br /> |'''gadralla-'''<br /> |'''ugadruʃ-'''<br /> |'''iggadri-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''tefʃiv''' &quot;flee&quot;<br /> |'''tefʃiv-'''<br /> |'''ateʃfan-'''<br /> |'''tefʃivett-'''<br /> |'''tefʃivla-'''<br /> |'''utefʃivuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittefʃivi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maʃkintɾod''' &quot;represent&quot;<br /> |'''maʃkintɾod-'''<br /> |'''amaʃkintɾon-'''<br /> |'''maʃkintɾott-'''<br /> |'''maʃkintɾolla-'''<br /> |'''umaʃkintɾotʃ-'''<br /> |'''immaʃkintɾodi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kajnaar''' &quot;jump&quot;<br /> |'''kajnaar-'''<br /> |'''akajnaan-'''<br /> |'''kajnerett-'''<br /> |'''kajnaalla-'''<br /> |'''ukajnaaruʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkajnaari-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys''' &quot;take care of&quot;<br /> |'''taldesyys-'''<br /> |'''ataldesyyn-'''<br /> |'''taldesyyst-'''<br /> |'''taldesyyll-'''<br /> |'''utaldesyyʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittaldesyysi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kota-'''<br /> |'''ankon-'''<br /> |'''kotatt-'''<br /> |'''kekolla-'''<br /> |'''ukotuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkoti-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussi-'''<br /> |'''ahsejn-'''<br /> |'''hust-'''<br /> |'''huzilla-'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ihusseji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''ken-''', '''kena-'''<br /> |'''angen-'''<br /> |'''kahett-'''<br /> |'''kenalla-''', '''kralla-'''<br /> |'''ukunuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkeni-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''mend''' &quot;become&quot;<br /> |'''mend-'''<br /> |'''amdan-'''<br /> |'''menett-'''<br /> |'''mendla-'''<br /> |'''umenduʃ-'''<br /> |'''immendi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustaj-''', '''ustaji-'''<br /> |'''anstajn-''', '''anstajin-'''<br /> |'''ustatt-''', '''ustitt-'''<br /> |'''ustalla-''', '''ustilla-'''<br /> |'''ustajuʃ-'''<br /> |'''istaji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''maj-'''<br /> |'''amann-'''<br /> |'''menett-'''<br /> |'''mjalla-'''<br /> |'''umujuʃ-'''<br /> |'''immaji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trak-'''<br /> |'''atrakan-'''<br /> |'''tetrakett-'''<br /> |'''ketralla-'''<br /> |'''utrakʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittraggi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''pakt''' &quot;understand&quot;<br /> |'''pakt-'''<br /> |'''ampakn-'''<br /> |'''pakett-'''<br /> |'''paktalla-'''<br /> |'''upaktuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ippakti-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''durʃin''' &quot;seem, appear&quot;<br /> |'''durʃin-'''<br /> |'''adurʃan-'''<br /> |'''durʃint-'''<br /> |'''durʃilla-'''<br /> |'''udurʃinʃ-'''<br /> |'''iddurʃini-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka''' &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |'''ʃaka-'''<br /> |'''aʃkan-'''<br /> |'''ʃakkatt-'''<br /> |'''ʃakalla-'''<br /> |'''uʃakkuʃ-'''<br /> |'''iʃakki-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kʃa''' [passive voice auxiliary]<br /> |'''kʃa-'''<br /> |'''akʃan-'''<br /> |'''kʃatt-'''<br /> |'''kʃalla-'''<br /> |'''ukʃuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkʃi-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The personal endings are : <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Present<br /> !Past<br /> !Future<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-sa'''<br /> |'''-os'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''-im'''<br /> |'''-mis'''<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''-ej'''<br /> |'''-jes'''<br /> |'''-oj'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''-ɔn'''<br /> |'''-sɔn'''<br /> |'''-on'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''-ib'''<br /> |'''-ips'''<br /> |'''-ob'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''-ɛw'''<br /> |'''-sɛw'''<br /> |'''-ow'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The following combinations of stem + ending set occur: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |Present<br /> |Past<br /> |Future<br /> |-<br /> |Generic<br /> !Simple <br /> Present<br /> !Habitual<br /> Past (&quot;used to&quot;)<br /> !Indefinite<br /> Future<br /> |-<br /> |Cursive<br /> !Present<br /> Continuous<br /> !Past <br /> Continuous<br /> !Future<br /> Progressive<br /> |-<br /> |Aorist<br /> |<br /> !Simple <br /> Past (Aorist)<br /> !Definite Future<br /> (Specific, Punctual)<br /> |-<br /> |Perfect<br /> !Present <br /> Perfect<br /> !Past<br /> Perfect<br /> !Future <br /> Perfect<br /> |-<br /> |Unrealised<br /> !Near <br /> Future<br /> !Unrealised <br /> Past (&quot;would&quot;)<br /> !Future <br /> (Remote) <br /> |-<br /> |Conditional <br /> !Conditional <br /> Present<br /> !Conditional <br /> Past<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> For the imperative, the base form of the verb is used. Optionally, the particle '''a''' can be used before the verb. Ex.: <br /> * '''Kaʃmal!''' / '''A kaʃmal!''' &quot;Take!&quot;<br /> * '''Hussi!''' / '''A hussi!''' &quot;Listen!&quot;<br /> * '''Spa kajnaar!''' / '''A spa kajnaar!''' &quot;Don't jump!&quot;<br /> <br /> While the formation of aspect stems is often irregular, the combination of stem + endings is usually quite regular and predictable. The usual epenthetic phonemes occur, mostly the semivowels ('''j''' and '''w'''), when two vowels come together, but these are more an artifact of speech and aren't usually indicated in writing. Ex.: <br /> * '''kaʃmallaus''', '''kaʃmallawus''' <br /> * '''kaʃmallaim''', '''kaʃmallajim''' <br /> * '''kaʃmallaej''', '''kaʃmallajej''', '''kaʃmallahej'''<br /> * '''kaʃmallaɔn''', '''kaʃmallawɔn''' <br /> * '''iggadriips''', '''iggadrijips'''<br /> * '''iggadrius''', '''iggadrijus'''<br /> * &amp;c.<br /> <br /> ==== Negative ====<br /> <br /> The infix '''-(i)nd-''', placed before the personal endings, makes a verb negative. Ex.: <br /> * '''landus''' &quot;I am not&quot;<br /> * '''lattindsɛw''' &quot;they weren't&quot;<br /> * '''hussindoj''' &quot;he/she won't listen&quot;<br /> * '''ateʃfanindips''' &quot;you weren't running away&quot;<br /> <br /> The emphatic negative particle '''spa''' may be used before the verb, always in the negative form. Ex.: <br /> * '''spa landus''' &quot;I am most certainly not&quot;<br /> * '''spa lattindsɛw''' &quot;they definitely weren't&quot;<br /> * '''spa hussindoj''' &quot;he/she will not listen at all&quot;<br /> * '''spa ateʃfanindips''' &quot;you really weren't running away&quot;<br /> <br /> This particle '''spa''' is also used in a negative command, with the base form of the verb. In that case, it doesn't necessarily have an emphatic meaning. Ex.: <br /> * '''Spa hussi!''' / '''A spa hussi!''' &quot;Don't listen!&quot;<br /> <br /> === Nominal Forms ===<br /> <br /> ==== Infinitive ==== <br /> <br /> The Dahur verb has infinitives for the Generic, Cursive, Aorist, Perfect and Unrealised aspects. They are formed by adding the ending '''-eh''' to the corresponding stem. The prefix '''u-''' of the Unrealised aspect is optional in the infinitive. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Generic<br /> !Cursive<br /> !Aorist<br /> !Perfect<br /> !Unrealised<br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmaleh'''<br /> |'''akʃmalaneh'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaletteh'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaeh'''<br /> |'''ukaʃmaluʃeh''', '''kaʃmaluʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''laeh'''<br /> |'''alaneh'''<br /> |'''latteh'''<br /> |'''lallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)lauʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadraeh'''<br /> |'''agandraneh'''<br /> |'''gadretteh'''<br /> |'''gadrallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)gadruʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kotaeh'''<br /> |'''ankoneh'''<br /> |'''kotatteh'''<br /> |'''kekollaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)kotuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussieh'''<br /> |'''ahsejneh'''<br /> |'''husteh'''<br /> |'''huzillaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)hussuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''keneh'''<br /> |'''angeneh'''<br /> |'''kahetteh'''<br /> |'''kenallaeh''', '''krallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)kunuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustajeh'''<br /> |'''anstajneh'''<br /> |'''ustatteh''', '''ustitteh'''<br /> |'''ustallaeh''', '''ustillaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)stajuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''majeh'''<br /> |'''amanneh'''<br /> |'''menetteh'''<br /> |'''mjallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)mujuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trakeh'''<br /> |'''atrakaneh'''<br /> |'''tetraketteh'''<br /> |'''ketrallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)trakʃeh'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The infinitive may be used as a noun, but also with certain auxiliary verbs. When a participle is used as a noun, usually the definite article may be omitted. Ex.: <br /> <br /> *'''(Tru) kotaeh laej suwani.''' / '''(Tru) kotaeh suwanjaej.''' &quot;Eating is good.&quot;<br /> <br /> ==== Participle ====<br /> Participles are built by adding specific suffixes to the corresponding stems of the verb: <br /> * '''-ur''' (active participle)<br /> * '''-ek''' (passive participle)<br /> <br /> The prefix '''u-''' of the unrealised stem is dropped.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Generic<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Cursive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Aorist<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmalur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalek'''<br /> |'''akʃmalanur'''<br /> |'''akʃmalanek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalettur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalettek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaur''', '''kaʃmallur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaek''', '''kaʃmallek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaluʃur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaluʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''laur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''alanur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lattur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lallaur''', '''lallur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lauʃur'''<br /> | <br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadraur'''<br /> |'''gadraek'''<br /> |'''agandranur'''<br /> |'''agandranek'''<br /> |'''gadrettur'''<br /> |'''gadrettek'''<br /> |'''gadrallur'''<br /> |'''gadrallek'''<br /> |'''gadruʃur'''<br /> |'''gadruʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kotaur'''<br /> |'''kotaek'''<br /> |'''ankonur'''<br /> |'''ankonek'''<br /> |'''kotattur'''<br /> |'''kotattek'''<br /> |'''kekollur'''<br /> |'''kekollek'''<br /> |'''kotuʃur'''<br /> |'''kotuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussiur'''<br /> |'''hussiek'''<br /> |'''ahsejnur'''<br /> |'''ahsejnek'''<br /> |'''hustur'''<br /> |'''hustek'''<br /> |'''huzillaur'''<br /> |'''huzillaek'''<br /> |'''hussuʃur'''<br /> |'''hussuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''kenur'''<br /> |'''kenek'''<br /> |'''angenur'''<br /> |'''angenek'''<br /> |'''kahettur'''<br /> |'''kahettek'''<br /> |'''kenallur''', '''krallur'''<br /> |'''kenallek''', '''krallek'''<br /> |'''kunuʃur'''<br /> |'''kunuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustajur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''anstajnur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustattur''', '''ustittur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustallur''', '''ustillek'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustajuʃur'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''majur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''amannur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''menettur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''mjallur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''mujuʃur'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trakur'''<br /> |'''trakek'''<br /> |'''atrakanur'''<br /> |'''atrakanek'''<br /> |'''tetrakettur'''<br /> |'''tetrakettek'''<br /> |'''ketrallur'''<br /> |'''ketrallek'''<br /> |'''trakʃur'''<br /> |'''trakʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka''' &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |'''ʃakaur'''<br /> |'''ʃakaek'''<br /> |'''aʃkanur'''<br /> |'''aʃkanek'''<br /> |'''ʃakkattur'''<br /> |'''ʃakkattek'''<br /> |'''ʃakallur'''<br /> |'''ʃakallek'''<br /> |'''ʃakkuʃur'''<br /> |'''ʃakkuʃek'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The corresponding negative versions of these participles are formed regularly with the suffix '''-(i)nd-'''. Ex.:<br /> * '''landur''' &quot;not being&quot;<br /> * '''angenindur''' &quot;not seeing&quot;<br /> * '''gradrettindek''' &quot;not written&quot;<br /> * '''ketrallindur''' &quot;who/which had not done&quot;<br /> * '''aʃkanindek''' &quot;which isn't being hunted&quot;<br /> <br /> === Passive Voice ===<br /> <br /> The passive voice is built with the auxiliary '''kʃa''', conjugated regularly, followed by the base form of the verb. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''akʃanus taldesyys''' &quot;I'm being taken care of&quot;<br /> * '''akʃanindmis ken''' &quot;you were not being seen&quot;<br /> * '''kʃallaɔn kaʃmal''' &quot;we have been taken&quot;<br /> * '''kʃattsɛw kota''' &quot;they were eaten&quot;<br /> * '''ikkʃindej trak''' &quot;if it's not done&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> === Conjugation ===<br /> Next you have a few verbs, conjugated in all its forms.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|Verb '''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Present<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Continuous <br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Perfect <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Near Future <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Present <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''laus'''<br /> |'''landus'''<br /> |'''alanus'''<br /> |'''alanindus'''<br /> |'''lallaus'''<br /> |'''lallandus'''<br /> |'''ulauʃus'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindus'''<br /> |'''illaius'''<br /> |'''illaindus'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''laim'''<br /> |'''landim'''<br /> |'''alanim'''<br /> |'''alanindim'''<br /> |'''lallaim'''<br /> |'''lallandim'''<br /> |'''ulauʃim'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindim'''<br /> |'''illaiim'''<br /> |'''illaindim'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''laej'''<br /> |'''landej'''<br /> |'''alanej'''<br /> |'''alanindej'''<br /> |'''lallaej'''<br /> |'''lallandej'''<br /> |'''ulauʃej'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindej'''<br /> |'''illaiej'''<br /> |'''illaindej'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''laɔn'''<br /> |'''landɔn'''<br /> |'''alanɔn'''<br /> |'''alanindɔn'''<br /> |'''lallaɔn'''<br /> |'''lallandɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindɔn'''<br /> |'''illaiɔn'''<br /> |'''illaindɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laib'''<br /> |'''landib'''<br /> |'''alanib'''<br /> |'''alanindib'''<br /> |'''lallaib'''<br /> |'''lallandib'''<br /> |'''ulauʃib'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindib'''<br /> |'''illaiib'''<br /> |'''illaindib'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''laɛw'''<br /> |'''landɛw'''<br /> |'''alanɛw'''<br /> |'''alanindɛw'''<br /> |'''lallaɛw'''<br /> |'''lallandɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindɛw'''<br /> |'''illaiɛw'''<br /> |'''illaindɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Habitual Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Continuous <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Past <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Past <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''lasa'''<br /> |'''landsa'''<br /> |'''alansa'''<br /> |'''alanindsa'''<br /> |'''lattsa'''<br /> |'''lattindsa'''<br /> |'''lallasa'''<br /> |'''lallandsa'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsa'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsa'''<br /> |'''illaisa'''<br /> |'''illaindsa'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''lamis'''<br /> |'''landmis'''<br /> |'''alanmis'''<br /> |'''alanindmis'''<br /> |'''lattmis'''<br /> |'''lattindmis'''<br /> |'''lallamis'''<br /> |'''lallandmis'''<br /> |'''ulauʃmis'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindmis'''<br /> |'''illaimis'''<br /> |'''illaindmis'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''lajes'''<br /> |'''landjes'''<br /> |'''alanjes'''<br /> |'''alanindjes'''<br /> |'''lattjes'''<br /> |'''lattindjes'''<br /> |'''lallajes'''<br /> |'''lallandjes'''<br /> |'''ulauʃjes'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindjes'''<br /> |'''illaijes'''<br /> |'''illaindjes'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''lasɔn'''<br /> |'''landsɔn'''<br /> |'''alansɔn'''<br /> |'''alanindsɔn'''<br /> |'''lattsɔn'''<br /> |'''lattindsɔn'''<br /> |'''lallasɔn'''<br /> |'''lallandsɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsɔn'''<br /> |'''illaisɔn'''<br /> |'''illaiindsɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laips'''<br /> |'''landips'''<br /> |'''alanips'''<br /> |'''alanindips'''<br /> |'''lattips'''<br /> |'''lattindips'''<br /> |'''lallaips'''<br /> |'''lallandips'''<br /> |'''ulauʃips'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindips'''<br /> |'''illaiips'''<br /> |'''illaindips'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''lasɛw'''<br /> |'''landsɛw'''<br /> |'''alansɛw'''<br /> |'''alanindsɛw'''<br /> |'''lattsɛw'''<br /> |'''lattindsɛw'''<br /> |'''lallasɛw'''<br /> |'''lallandsɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsɛw'''<br /> |'''illaisɛw'''<br /> |'''illaindsɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Indefinite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Progressive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Definite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Remote Future<br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''laos'''<br /> |'''landos'''<br /> |'''alanos'''<br /> |'''alanindos'''<br /> |'''lattos'''<br /> |'''lattindos'''<br /> |'''lallaos'''<br /> |'''lallandos'''<br /> |'''ulauʃos'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindos'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''laom'''<br /> |'''landom'''<br /> |'''alanom'''<br /> |'''alanindom'''<br /> |'''lattom'''<br /> |'''lattindom'''<br /> |'''lallaom'''<br /> |'''lallandom'''<br /> |'''ulauʃom'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindom'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''laoj'''<br /> |'''landoj'''<br /> |'''alanoj'''<br /> |'''alanindoj'''<br /> |'''lattoj'''<br /> |'''lattindoj'''<br /> |'''lallaoj'''<br /> |'''lallandoj'''<br /> |'''ulauʃoj'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindoj'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''laon'''<br /> |'''landon'''<br /> |'''alanon'''<br /> |'''alanindon'''<br /> |'''latton'''<br /> |'''lattindon'''<br /> |'''lallaon'''<br /> |'''lallandon'''<br /> |'''ulauʃon'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindon'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laob'''<br /> |'''landob'''<br /> |'''alanob'''<br /> |'''alanindob'''<br /> |'''lattob'''<br /> |'''lattindob'''<br /> |'''lallaob'''<br /> |'''lallandob'''<br /> |'''ulauʃob'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindob'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''laow'''<br /> |'''landow'''<br /> |'''alanow'''<br /> |'''alanindow'''<br /> |'''lattow'''<br /> |'''lattindow'''<br /> |'''lallaow'''<br /> |'''lallandow'''<br /> |'''ulauʃow'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindow'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|Verb '''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Present<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Continuous <br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Perfect <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Near Future <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Present <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussius'''<br /> |'''hussindus'''<br /> |'''ahsejnus'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindus'''<br /> |'''huzillaus'''<br /> |'''huzillandus'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃus'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindus'''<br /> |'''ihussejius'''<br /> |'''ihussejindus'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussiim'''<br /> |'''hussindim'''<br /> |'''ahsejnim'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindim'''<br /> |'''huzillaim'''<br /> |'''huzillandim'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃim'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindim'''<br /> |'''ihussejiim'''<br /> |'''ihussejindim'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussije'''<br /> |'''hussindje'''<br /> |'''ahsejnje'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindje'''<br /> |'''huzillaje'''<br /> |'''huzillandje'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃje'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindje'''<br /> |'''ihussejije'''<br /> |'''ihussejindje'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussiɔn'''<br /> |'''hussindɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillaɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillandɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejiɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejindɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiib'''<br /> |'''hussindib'''<br /> |'''ahsejnib'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindib'''<br /> |'''huzillaib'''<br /> |'''huzillandib'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃib'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindib'''<br /> |'''ihussejiib'''<br /> |'''ihussejindib'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussiɛw'''<br /> |'''hussindɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillaɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillandɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejiɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejindɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Habitual Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Continuous <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Past <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Past <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussisa'''<br /> |'''hussindsa'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsa'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsa'''<br /> |'''hustsa'''<br /> |'''hustindsa'''<br /> |'''huzillasa'''<br /> |'''huzillandsa'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsa'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsa'''<br /> |'''ihussejisa'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsa'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussimis'''<br /> |'''hussindmis'''<br /> |'''ahsejnmis'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindmis'''<br /> |'''hustmis'''<br /> |'''hustindmis'''<br /> |'''huzillamis'''<br /> |'''huzillandmis'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃmis'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindmis'''<br /> |'''ihussejimis'''<br /> |'''ihussejindmis'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussijes'''<br /> |'''hussindjes'''<br /> |'''ahsejnjes'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindjes'''<br /> |'''hustjes'''<br /> |'''hustindjes'''<br /> |'''huzillajes'''<br /> |'''huzillandjes'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃjes'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindjes'''<br /> |'''ihussejijes'''<br /> |'''ihussejindjes'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussisɔn'''<br /> |'''hussindsɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsɔn'''<br /> |'''hustsɔn'''<br /> |'''hustindsɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillasɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillandsɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejisɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiips'''<br /> |'''hussindips'''<br /> |'''ahsejnips'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindips'''<br /> |'''hustips'''<br /> |'''hustindips'''<br /> |'''huzillaips'''<br /> |'''huzillandips'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃips'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindips'''<br /> |'''ihussejiips'''<br /> |'''ihussejindips'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussisɛw'''<br /> |'''hussindsɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsɛw'''<br /> |'''hustsɛw'''<br /> |'''hustindsɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillasɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillandsɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejisɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Indefinite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Progressive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Definite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Remote Future<br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussios'''<br /> |'''hussindos'''<br /> |'''ahsejnos'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindos'''<br /> |'''hustos'''<br /> |'''hustindos'''<br /> |'''huzillaos'''<br /> |'''huzillandos'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃos'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindos'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussiom'''<br /> |'''hussindom'''<br /> |'''ahsejnom'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindom'''<br /> |'''hustom'''<br /> |'''hustindom'''<br /> |'''huzillaom'''<br /> |'''huzillandom'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃom'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindom'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussioj'''<br /> |'''hussindoj'''<br /> |'''ahsejnoj'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindoj'''<br /> |'''hustoj'''<br /> |'''hustindoj'''<br /> |'''huzillaoj'''<br /> |'''huzillandoj'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃoj'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindoj'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussion'''<br /> |'''hussindon'''<br /> |'''ahsejnon'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindon'''<br /> |'''huston'''<br /> |'''hustindon'''<br /> |'''huzillaon'''<br /> |'''huzillandon'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃon'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindon'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiob'''<br /> |'''hussindob'''<br /> |'''ahsejnob'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindob'''<br /> |'''hustob'''<br /> |'''hustindob'''<br /> |'''huzillaob'''<br /> |'''huzillandob'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃob'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindob'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussiow'''<br /> |'''hussindow'''<br /> |'''ahsejnow'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindow'''<br /> |'''hustow'''<br /> |'''hustindow'''<br /> |'''huzillaow'''<br /> |'''huzillandow'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃow'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindow'''<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Incorporation ===<br /> Besides complementing a verb with a noun phrase in the accusative (or some other) case, complements may be incorporated in the verb. This resource is particularly common with more frequent verb + complement combinations. Common verbs, especially indicating more fundamental actions such as &quot;eat&quot;, &quot;drink&quot;, &quot;take&quot;, &quot;speak&quot;, &quot;make&quot;, &quot;kill&quot; &amp;c. are more prone to this type of constructions, while more abstract verbs, as well as less frequently used verbs, tend to follow the more conventional verb + complement approach. <br /> <br /> When a complement is incorporated to a verb, it receives the prefix '''s-''' and is placed before the verb root. Irregularities are not uncommon. <br /> Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Regular Construction<br /> !Incorporation<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota ʃøga'''<br /> |'''sʃøgkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat meat&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota dabasa'''<br /> |'''sdabaskota'''<br /> |&quot;eat bread&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota drupala'''<br /> |'''sdrupalkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat vegetables&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota pinim'''<br /> |'''spinimkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat fruit&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''twiʃin halajna'''<br /> |'''shalantwiʃin'''<br /> |&quot;drink water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''twiʃin myndra'''<br /> |'''smyndtwiʃin'''<br /> |&quot;drink alcoholic beverage&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys menira'''<br /> |'''smeniraldesyys'''<br /> |&quot;take care of a child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys apsala'''<br /> |'''sapsaldesyys'''<br /> |&quot;take care of everything&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi tuglaa'''<br /> |'''stuglussi'''<br /> |&quot;hear a noise&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka pœrakʃa'''<br /> |'''spœrakʃaka'''<br /> |&quot;hunt a beast&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak tilmara'''<br /> |'''stilmatrak'''<br /> |&quot;make a mistake&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> =Word Formation=<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> !Examples<br /> |-<br /> |'''-(j)ɛv'''<br /> |agent, doer, -er<br /> |'''ballast''' &quot;to study&quot; ⇒ '''ballastɛv''' &quot;student&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''pɾujn''' &quot;to paint&quot; ⇒ '''pɾujnɛv''' &quot;painter&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''egast''' &quot;to farm&quot; ⇒ '''egastɛv''' &quot;farmer&quot; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''spœrakʃaka''' &quot;hunt a beast&quot; ⇒ '''spœrakʃakajɛv''' &quot;beast hunter&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''sʃøgkota''' &quot;eat meat&quot; ⇒ '''sʃøgkotajɛv''' &quot;meat eater, carnivore&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''smyndtwiʃin''' &quot;drink alcohol&quot; ⇒ '''smyndtwiʃinɛv''' &quot;an alcoholic, drunk, drunkard&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-mal'''<br /> |action, -tion<br /> |'''ballast''' &quot;to study&quot; ⇒ '''ballastmal''' &quot;study, dedication&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''pɾujn''' &quot;to paint&quot; ⇒ '''pɾujnmal''' &quot;(action of) painting&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''egast''' &quot;to farm&quot; ⇒ '''egastmal''' &quot;(action of) farming&quot; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''stilmatrak''' &quot;make a mistake&quot; ⇒ '''stilmatrakmal''' &quot;error, making a mistake&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''smeniraldesyys''' &quot;take care of a child&quot; ⇒ '''smeniraldesyysmal''' &quot;(the act of) taking care of a child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-ʃim'''<br /> |adjective<br /> |'''baruk''' &quot;interest&quot; ⇒ '''barukʃim''' &quot;interesting&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''tuglaa''' &quot;noise&quot; ⇒ '''tuglaaʃim''' &quot;noisy&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''stilmatrak''' &quot;make a mistake&quot; ⇒ '''stilmatrakʃim''' &quot;prone to making mistakes&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''sdrupalkota''' &quot;eat vegetables&quot; ⇒ '''sdrupalkotaʃim''', '''sdrupalkotʃim''' &quot;vegetable-eating (adj.)&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''ballastɛv''' &quot;student&quot; ⇒ '''ballastɛvʃim''' &quot;student-related&quot;<br /> &lt;!---<br /> |-<br /> |'''-'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-''' &quot;&quot; ⇒ '''-''' &quot;&quot;<br /> '''-''' &quot;&quot; ⇒ '''-''' &quot;&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-''' &quot;&quot; ⇒ '''-''' &quot;&quot;<br /> '''-''' &quot;&quot; ⇒ '''-''' &quot;&quot;<br /> --&gt;<br /> |}</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Conlangs/Dahur&diff=5388 Conlangs/Dahur 2026-10-17T12:23:07Z <p>Panglossa: /* Word Formation */</p> <hr /> <div>{{DISPLAYTITLE:Dahur}}<br /> {{RightTOC}}<br /> =Phonology=<br /> <br /> ==Vowels==<br /> <br /> Dahur vowels are usually short. Double vowels (ex.: aa, ee &amp;c.) may happen, but they are considered as simple vowel sequences.<br /> <br /> The following vowels qualities are distinguished: <br /> <br /> '''a''' '''e''' '''ɛ''' '''i''' '''o''' '''ɔ''' '''ø''' '''œ''' '''u''' '''y'''<br /> <br /> The diagram below shows the 10 vowels of Dahur.<br /> <br /> [[File:dahurvowels.png|link=]]<br /> <br /> In practice, the vowel /a/ may actually vary between /a/, /ä/ and /ɑ/.<br /> <br /> Merging of /ø/ and /œ/ is fairly common, especially in more informal contexts, as these two vowels mostly don't occur as minimal pair (except in a couple cases).<br /> <br /> ==Consonants==<br /> <br /> Dahur consonants are as follows: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;border-width:0px&quot;|<br /> !Bilabial<br /> !Labiodental<br /> !Alveolar<br /> !Postalveolar<br /> !Palatal<br /> !Velar<br /> !Glottal<br /> |-<br /> !Nasal<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''m'''<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''n'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Plosive<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''p''' '''b'''<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''t''' '''d'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''k''' '''g'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Sibilant fricative<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''s''' '''z'''<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''ʃ''' '''ʒ''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Non-sibilant fricative<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''f''' '''v''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''h'''<br /> |-<br /> !Approximant<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''j'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Tap/Flap/Trill<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''ɾ''' '''r''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Lateral Approx.<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''l'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The rhotic consonant ('''r''') is in free variation and may be realised either as a tap, a flap or a trill. The trill pronunciation (/r/) is more common at the beginning of a syllable, and even more so at the beginning of a word. The tap/flap pronunciation (/ɾ/) is more common in consonant clusters, especially after a plosive. <br /> <br /> In Dahur phonology, the combinations '''tr''' and '''kʃ''' count as single, independent consonants.<br /> <br /> ==Phonotactics==<br /> A syllable in Dahur must contain one vowel, which may be preceded and/or followed by any number of consonants. In practice, consonant clusters don't usually go beyond four consonants. For that account, '''kʃ''' and '''tɾ''' are always considered as single consonants. <br /> <br /> All consonant sequences are possible. However, in practice, some consonant combinations (ex. '''-hm-''', '''-tɾkʃ-''' &amp;c.) are rare.<br /> <br /> Some studies consider the existence of a glottal stop when a proper consonant is absent. This view is reflected in the writing, which has a special sign for the glottal stop / lack of a consonant. The last consonant of a syllable can be doubled. <br /> <br /> Examples of valid syllables: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''a'''<br /> | '''tɛ'''<br /> | '''en'''<br /> | '''wi'''<br /> | '''koj'''<br /> | '''gjɔ'''<br /> | '''pɾujn'''<br /> | '''kʃtɾa'''<br /> | '''fʃtlœmbz'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Stress==<br /> In the standard pronunciation, words are stressed on the next-to-last syllable. However, if the last syllable contains the consonant /tɾ/, it will be stressed.<br /> <br /> Ex.:<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''&lt;u&gt;ka&lt;/u&gt;nar''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/ˈka.nar/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''os&lt;u&gt;trøn&lt;/u&gt;dɛl''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/os.ˈtɾøn.dɛl/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''&lt;u&gt;tef&lt;/u&gt;ʃiv''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/ˈtef.ʃiv/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''da&lt;u&gt;sutɾ&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/daˈsutɾ/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''maʃkin&lt;u&gt;tɾod&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/maʃ.kinˈtɾod/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Doubled vowels in the last syllable may sound as a long, stressed vowel; however, they are actually two separate vowels, each one in a different syllable, with stress falling on the first one (or on the last, in case that syllable contains the consonant '''tr'''). It is not uncommon to hear an epenthetic '''h''', '''j''' or '''w''' between the two vowels.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kaj&lt;u&gt;na&lt;/u&gt;ar''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/kaj.ˈna.ar/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/kaj.ˈna.har/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> | '''pakisa&lt;u&gt;atr&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/pa.ki.sa.ˈatr/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/pa.ki.sa.ˈhatr/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> | '''tøndel&lt;u&gt;li&lt;/u&gt;in''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.in/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.jin/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.hin/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''talde&lt;u&gt;sy&lt;/u&gt;ys''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tal.de.ˈsy.ys/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tal.de.ˈsy.hys/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =Writing=<br /> <br /> [[Dahur script]] consists in an alphasyllabary consisting in separate letters indicating consonants, a combination of separate letters and diacritics to indicate vowels, as well as certain special letters for individual syllables.<br /> <br /> =Morphology=<br /> <br /> Dahur is a highly flexional language, with a strong presence of irregular forms.<br /> <br /> Nouns inflect for number, which is basically singular and plural, but there are also occurrences of dual (for things normally occurring in pairs) and singulative (for individual items of things usually found collectively). <br /> <br /> Nouns also inflect for case, usually: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, locative, instrumental, ergative and ablative. Instances of partitive and vocative are also found. The case called ergative is used basically for the agent of the passive voice.<br /> <br /> Adjectives show no agreement to nouns, and inflect for degree (comparatives of superiority, equality, inferiority; relative and absolute superlative).<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Nouns==<br /> <br /> <br /> === Class ===<br /> <br /> Dahurian nouns are divided in five classes, which can be compared to Latin or Greek declensions, as they consist in different inflection patterns, but may also be seen as a form of gender, as class is usually (but not always necessarily) related to the meaning of a noun. <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class 1<br /> |Living beings<br /> |-<br /> !Class 2<br /> |General objects<br /> |-<br /> !Class 3<br /> |Natural elements; insects<br /> |-<br /> !Class 4<br /> |Parts of human body; clothing<br /> |-<br /> !Class 5<br /> |Abstract nouns; traditional imaginary beings<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There are no morphological indications related to noun classes in the nominative singular. The differences appear along the inflection of nouns.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Number ===<br /> Nouns in Dahur have a singular and a plural. The plural ending varies according to noun class and to case. There is also a dual number, which is valid only for nouns normally occurring in pairs. Mass or collective nouns have a singulative inflection, but this is not very systematically indicated.<br /> <br /> <br /> So, for example:<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> !Dual<br /> !Singulative<br /> |-<br /> |class 1<br /> |'''grats'''<br /> &quot;boy&quot;<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> &quot;boys&quot;<br /> | -<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 2<br /> |'''kɛʃev'''<br /> &quot;hammer&quot;<br /> |'''kɛʃevlin'''<br /> &quot;hammers&quot;<br /> |'''kɛʃevs'''<br /> &quot;pair of hammers&quot; (traditionally used by blacksmiths)<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 3<br /> |'''halajn'''<br /> &quot;water&quot;<br /> |'''halejnn'''<br /> &quot;waters&quot; (i.e. in a flood)<br /> |'''halajns'''<br /> &quot;The Two Waters&quot; (the river Okanuma and the lake Kassanjas)<br /> |'''halajny'''<br /> &quot;a drop of water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |class 4<br /> |'''kanar'''<br /> &quot;eye&quot;<br /> |'''kanarni'''<br /> &quot;many eyes&quot; (mostly figuratively)<br /> |'''kanaris'''<br /> &quot;(two/both) eyes&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 4<br /> |'''kʃalim'''<br /> &quot;hair&quot;<br /> |'''kʃalimni'''<br /> &quot;(types of) hair&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |'''kʃalimy'''<br /> &quot;a (single) hair&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |class 5<br /> |'''astrønɛl'''<br /> &quot;idea&quot;<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> &quot;ideas&quot;<br /> |'''astrønɛls'''<br /> &quot;a couple ideas&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The plural in classes 1, 2 and 5 is usually regular, obtained with the respective suffixes ('''-en''', '''-lin''', '''-jan'''). <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 1<br /> |'''katlaj'''<br /> &quot;girlfriend&quot;<br /> |'''katlajen'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''dukʃatr'''<br /> &quot;boss&quot;<br /> |'''dukʃatren'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''egastɛv'''<br /> &quot;farmer&quot;<br /> |'''egastɛven'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 2<br /> |'''takoj'''<br /> &quot;pin&quot;<br /> |'''takojlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''uhpsan'''<br /> &quot;paper&quot;<br /> |'''uhpsanlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''dasutr'''<br /> &quot;document, file&quot;<br /> |'''dasutrlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 5<br /> |'''pɛktegal'''<br /> &quot;angel&quot;<br /> |'''pɛktegaljan'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ostrøndɛl'''<br /> &quot;interruption&quot;<br /> |'''ostrøndɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''piktaraʃ'''<br /> &quot;problem&quot;<br /> |'''piktaraʃjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In classes 3 and 4, besides the suffixes ('''-n''', '''-ni'''), most nouns suffer some sort of mutation, usually affecting only one vowel but non uncommonly consisting of more significative changes.<br /> <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 3<br /> |'''pakpaki'''<br /> &quot;louse&quot;<br /> |'''pakpɛkin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''pahalis'''<br /> &quot;leaf&quot;<br /> |'''pahaljen'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''tʃeptal'''<br /> &quot;cloud&quot;<br /> |'''tʃapatlin''', '''tʃaptlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 4<br /> |'''kraus'''<br /> &quot;ear&quot;<br /> |'''krojsni'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ɛmblew'''<br /> &quot;hat&quot;<br /> |'''ɛmbalni'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''krikter'''<br /> &quot;helmet&quot;<br /> |'''kruktni'''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Case ===<br /> Dahur nouns inflect for the following cases: <br /> * '''nominative''' (subject, predicative)<br /> * '''accusative''' (direct object, motion towards)<br /> * '''dative''' (indirect object)<br /> * '''genitive''' (possession, partitive, origin)<br /> * '''locative''' (location, placement)<br /> * '''instrumental''' (instrument, means, company)<br /> * '''ablative''' (adverbial)<br /> * '''ergative''' (agent of the passive voice)<br /> <br /> All cases except the nominative and the ergative can be used with prepositions.<br /> <br /> Certain nouns, mostly nouns indicating human beings, also show a vocative form, mostly formed with the ending '''-e''', but usually irregular. <br /> <br /> Certain nouns, for example nouns indicating mass or food, show a partitive case, usually formed with the ending '''-(i)t'''. <br /> <br /> <br /> === Inflection ===<br /> <br /> Noun declension in Dahur is quite regular, in terms of case and the less usual numbers, viz. the dual and the singulative.<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 1<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 2<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 3<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 4<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 5<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''-'''<br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-en'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-lin'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-n'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-is'''<br /> |'''-ni'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-an'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-lajn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-an'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-jas'''<br /> |'''-nja'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-un'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-lun'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-wan'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-ujs'''<br /> |'''-nu'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-ujn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''-ak'''<br /> |'''-ask'''<br /> |'''-ken'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ik'''<br /> |'''-isk'''<br /> |'''-link'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-aʃ'''<br /> |'''-ʃas'''<br /> |'''-ʃan'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-iʃ'''<br /> |'''-siʃ'''<br /> |'''-niʃ'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ik'''<br /> |'''-isk'''<br /> |'''-jank'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-emb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-limb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-emb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-bis'''<br /> |'''-nibb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-jamb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-nom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-lom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-nom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-joms'''<br /> |'''-njom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-njom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-nɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-lɛnv''', '''-lɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-nɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-jɛfs'''<br /> |'''-njɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-njɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-løtr'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-sjøtr'''<br /> |'''-trøjn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøjn'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> &lt;!---<br /> * The '''nominative''' case is the basic form of nouns.<br /> * The '''accusative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-a'''. <br /> * The '''dative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-si'''.<br /> * The '''genitive''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ak''' for animate intelligent beings, '''-iʃ''' for animals, '''-is''' for concrete objects and '''-ɔn''' for abstract things.<br /> * The '''locative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-us'''. With animate nouns, the locative can mean &quot;on&quot;, or &quot;with&quot;, as in &quot;carrying with&quot;. <br /> * The '''instrumental''' case is indicated by the enging '''-em''' for animate intelligent beings, '''-om''' for animals, '''-um''' for things.<br /> * The '''ergative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-øtr'''. <br /> * The '''ablative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ɛv'''. <br /> --&gt;<br /> <br /> When an ending starting with a vowel is applied, a final '''-i''' becomes '''-j-''', and a final '''-u''' becomes '''-w-'''; otherwise, an '''-h-''' is added. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''dula''' &quot;babysitter&quot;, '''dulahen''' &quot;babysitters&quot;<br /> * '''agdari''' &quot;prisoner&quot;, '''agdarjen''' &quot;prisoners&quot;<br /> * '''pakpaki''' &quot;louse&quot;, '''pakpakja''' &quot;louse (accus.)&quot;, '''pakpakjaʃ''' &quot;of a louse&quot;, '''pakpakjom''' &quot;by a louse&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> In the following tables, you have some examples of nouns of the various classes, fully inflected for number and case.<br /> <br /> * Class 1: '''grats''' &quot;boy&quot; <br /> * Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' &quot;hammer&quot; <br /> * Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' &quot;cloud&quot; <br /> * Class 4: '''kraus''' &quot;ear&quot; <br /> * Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' &quot;idea&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 1: '''grats''' &quot;boy&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''grats'''<br /> |'''gratss'''<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''gratsa'''<br /> |'''gratsas'''<br /> |'''gratsan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''gratsu'''<br /> |'''gratsus'''<br /> |'''gratsun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''gratsak'''<br /> |'''gratsask'''<br /> |'''gratsken'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''gratsebb'''<br /> |'''gratseps'''<br /> |'''gratsemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''gratsom'''<br /> |'''gratsoms'''<br /> |'''gratsnom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''gratsɛv'''<br /> |'''gratsɛfs'''<br /> |'''gratsnɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''gratsøtr'''<br /> |'''gratssøtr'''<br /> |'''gratsetrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Vocative<br /> |'''gratse'''<br /> |'''gratses'''<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' &quot;hammer&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''kɛʃev'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevs'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlin'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''kɛʃeva'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevas'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlajn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''kɛʃevu'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevus'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''kɛʃevik'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevisk'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlink'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''kɛʃevebb'''<br /> |'''kɛʃeveps'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlimb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''kɛʃevom'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevoms'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''kɛʃevɛv'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevɛfs'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlɛnv''', '''kɛʃevlɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''kɛʃevøtr'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevsøtr'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevløtr'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' &quot;cloud&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''tʃeptal'''<br /> |'''tʃeptals'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlin'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''tʃeptala'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalas'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlijan''', '''tʃaptljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''tʃeptalu'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalus'''<br /> |'''tʃaptliwan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''tʃeptalaʃ'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalʃas'''<br /> |'''tʃaptliʃan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''tʃeptalebb'''<br /> |'''tʃeptaleps'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlijemb''', '''tʃaptljemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''tʃeptalom'''<br /> |'''tʃeptaloms'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlinom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''tʃeptalɛv'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalɛfs'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlinɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''tʃeptaløtr'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalsøtr'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlitrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''tʃeptalt'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalts'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlint'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 4: '''kraus''' &quot;ear&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''kraus'''<br /> |'''krausis'''<br /> |'''krojsni'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''krausa'''<br /> |'''krausjas'''<br /> |'''krojsnja'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''krausu'''<br /> |'''krausujs'''<br /> |'''krojsnu'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''krausiʃ'''<br /> |'''kraussiʃ'''<br /> |'''krojsniʃ'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''krausebb'''<br /> |'''krauseps'''<br /> |'''krojsnibb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''krausom'''<br /> |'''krausoms'''<br /> |'''krojsnjom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''krausɛv'''<br /> |'''krausɛfs'''<br /> |'''krojsnjɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''krausøtr'''<br /> |'''krausjøtr'''<br /> |'''krojstrøjn'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' &quot;idea&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''astrønɛls'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''astrønɛla'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlas'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''astrønɛlu'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlus'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlujn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''astrønɛlik'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlisk'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljank'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''astrønɛlebb'''<br /> |'''astrønɛleps'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljamb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''astrønɛlom'''<br /> |'''astrønɛloms'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlnjom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''astrønɛlɛv'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlɛfs'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlnjɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''astrønɛløtr'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlsøtr'''<br /> |'''astrønɛltrøjn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''astrønɛlt'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlts'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljant'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Articles ==<br /> <br /> === Definite Article === <br /> <br /> The definite article inflects for case and number, and is quite irregular. <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> !Singulative <br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''tru'''<br /> |'''gas'''<br /> |'''tann'''<br /> |'''try'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''na'''<br /> |'''ga'''<br /> |'''ta'''<br /> |'''ny'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''kʃu'''<br /> |'''gu'''<br /> |'''tun'''<br /> |'''kʃu'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''kis'''<br /> |'''gak'''<br /> |'''tak'''<br /> |'''kis'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''debb'''<br /> |'''gebb'''<br /> |'''tebb'''<br /> |'''debb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''trom'''<br /> |'''gom'''<br /> |'''tom'''<br /> |'''trom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative <br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |'''gɛv'''<br /> |'''tɛv'''<br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''trø'''<br /> |'''gøtr'''<br /> |'''tøtr'''<br /> |'''trø'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Indefinite Article === <br /> <br /> Dahur has no proper indefinite article. <br /> <br /> If it's really necessary to mark a noun phrase as indefinite, an indefinite pronoun may be used. The most common is '''lum''' (invariable), meaning &quot;some&quot;, &quot;a certain&quot; &amp;c.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Prepositions ==<br /> <br /> Prepositions in Dahur require the noun in one of the following cases: <br /> <br /> * accusative<br /> * dative<br /> * genitive<br /> * ablative<br /> * instrumental<br /> * locative<br /> <br /> The nominative and the ergative are '''never''' used with prepositions. <br /> <br /> In the table below you have the most common Dahur prepositions: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Preposition<br /> !Case<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''dun'''<br /> |''locative'', ''accusative of movement''<br /> |inside<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''yin'''<br /> |''dative''<br /> |for, in behalf of<br /> |-<br /> |''accusative''<br /> |towards<br /> |-<br /> |'''ari''', '''ar'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |from, out of<br /> |-<br /> |'''yuʃ'''<br /> |''genitive'', ''ablative''<br /> |because of<br /> |-<br /> |'''vøj'''<br /> |''locative''<br /> |through<br /> |-<br /> |'''syn'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |near<br /> |-<br /> |'''kʃe'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |since, ago<br /> |-<br /> |'''pɛn'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |besides, next to<br /> |-<br /> |'''lujg'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |in front of<br /> |-<br /> |'''mœh'''<br /> |''ablative''<br /> |without<br /> |-<br /> |'''sto'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |on, on top of<br /> |-<br /> |'''krɔj'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |under<br /> |-<br /> |'''tjɛs'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |before (time)<br /> |-<br /> |'''gwaj'''<br /> |''accusative''<br /> |after (time)<br /> |-<br /> |'''fyj'''<br /> |''ablative''<br /> |during<br /> |-<br /> |'''vlen'''<br /> |''instrumental''<br /> |despite<br /> |-<br /> |'''uhk'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |except<br /> |-<br /> |'''uzd'''<br /> |''dative''<br /> |instead of<br /> |-<br /> |'''blas'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |behind<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> * '''yin na hedana''' &quot;towards the house&quot;<br /> * '''dun na hedana''' &quot;into the house&quot;<br /> * '''ar kis hedanik''' &quot;from the house&quot;, &quot;out of the house&quot;<br /> * '''syn debb hedanebb''' &quot;near the house&quot;<br /> * '''syn na hedana''' &quot;going near of the house&quot;<br /> * '''pɛn debb hedanebb''' &quot;besides the house&quot;, &quot;next to the house&quot;<br /> * '''pɛn na hedana''' &quot;going next to the house&quot;<br /> * '''lujg debb hedanebb''' &quot;in front to the house&quot;<br /> * '''lujg na hedana''' &quot;going to the front of the house&quot;<br /> * '''mœh dɛv hedanɛv''' &quot;without the house&quot;<br /> * '''sto debb hedanebb''' &quot;on top of the house&quot;<br /> * '''sto na hedana''' &quot;going onto (the top of) the house&quot;<br /> * '''krɔj debb hedanebb''' &quot;under the house&quot;<br /> * '''uzd kʃu hedanu''' &quot;instead of the house&quot;<br /> * '''blas debb hedanebb''' &quot;behind the house&quot;<br /> * '''blas na hedana''' &quot;going behind the house&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> == Adjectives ==<br /> <br /> === Attributive Adjectives ===<br /> Attributive adjectives in Dahur are invariable and come before the noun. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''fɛren grats''' &quot;a smart boy&quot;<br /> * '''duʃ halajn''' &quot;clean water&quot;<br /> * '''selak kanaris''' &quot;pretty eyes&quot;<br /> <br /> A few attributes may be expressed by affixes to the noun, instead of the separate adjective. The most common ones are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar'''<br /> |'''-os''' <br /> (usually deleting the last vowel of the original noun)<br /> |&quot;big&quot;, &quot;large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr'''<br /> |'''-in-''' <br /> (before the last vowel of the or. noun)<br /> |&quot;small&quot;, &quot;little&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani'''<br /> |'''-(t)ta-''' <br /> (before the second vowel of the or. noun)<br /> |&quot;good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''<br /> |'''-aar'''<br /> |&quot;bad&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !With Adjective<br /> !With Affixed Form<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''piktarʃos''' <br /> |&quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''piktarinaʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a little problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''attastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a good idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlaar'''<br /> |&quot;a bad idea&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Certain adjectives have a special, shortened form, which is prefixed to nouns when used attributively. <br /> The most common ones are: <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar'''<br /> |'''nah-''' <br /> |&quot;big&quot;, &quot;large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr'''<br /> |'''ki-''' <br /> (doubles the initial consonant of the noun)<br /> |&quot;small&quot;, &quot;little&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani'''<br /> |'''suw-''' ('''suww-''' before vowels)<br /> |&quot;good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''<br /> |'''dag-''' ('''dagg-''' before vowels)<br /> |&quot;bad&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin'''<br /> |'''sin-''' <br /> |&quot;new&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ'''<br /> |'''dom-''' <br /> |&quot;old&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''mahhalis'''<br /> |'''mah-''' <br /> |&quot;ancient&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''', '''makʃølin'''<br /> |'''møkʃ-''' <br /> |&quot;important&quot;, &quot;great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan'''<br /> |'''tos-''', '''tan-''' <br /> |&quot;beautiful&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki'''<br /> |'''killi-''' <br /> |&quot;false&quot;, &quot;fake&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !With Adjective<br /> !With Prefix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''nahpiktaraʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''kippiktaraʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a small problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''suwwastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a good idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''daggastrønɛl'''<br /> |&quot;a bad idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin dasutr'''<br /> |'''sindasutr''' <br /> |&quot;a new document&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ hedan'''<br /> |'''domhedan''' <br /> |&quot;an old house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''mahhalis kataʃtevan'''<br /> |'''mahkataʃtevan''' <br /> |&quot;an ancient civilization&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen dasutr''', '''makʃølin dasutr'''<br /> |'''møkʃdasutr''' <br /> |&quot;an important document&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen astrønɛl''', '''makʃølin astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''møkʃastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a great idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan dummal'''<br /> |'''tosdummal''', '''tandummal''' <br /> |&quot;a beautiful song&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki bɔrakʃ'''<br /> |'''killibɔrakʃ''' <br /> |&quot;false news&quot;, &quot;fake news&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Predicative Adjectives ===<br /> <br /> An adjective used in predicative function is invariable. Only the full forms of adjectives can be used predicatively. <br /> <br /> Usually a linking verb is employed. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru astrønɛl laje makʃølen.''' || The idea is great.<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru grats alanje befitra.''' || The boy is tired.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is also the possibility of turning adjectives into verbs. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru astrønɛl makʃølnaje.''' || The idea is great.<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru grats abefitranje.''' || The boy is tired.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The most common way to make an adjective into a verb, implying the idea of &quot;be&quot;, is the suffix '''-a-''', which may cause some change in the last syllable of the original adjective. If the adjective already ends in '''-a''', there is no change. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''' <br /> &quot;great&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølna''' <br /> &quot;be great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;be tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani''' <br /> &quot;good&quot;<br /> |'''suwanja''' <br /> &quot;be good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''' <br /> &quot;bad&quot;<br /> |'''daggusa''' <br /> &quot;be bad&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin''' <br /> &quot;new&quot;<br /> |'''sulna''', '''sinna''' <br /> &quot;be new&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ''' <br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dɛtra''' <br /> &quot;be old&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan''' <br /> &quot;beautiful&quot;<br /> |'''tossana''', '''tosna''' <br /> &quot;be beautiful&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''trapter''' <br /> &quot;unique&quot;<br /> |'''traptra''' <br /> &quot;be unique&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃɔtma''' <br /> &quot;sure&quot;, &quot;certain&quot;<br /> |'''ʃɔtama''' <br /> &quot;be sure&quot;, &quot;be certain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kanikli''' <br /> &quot;appropriate&quot;<br /> |'''kankilja''' <br /> &quot;be appropriate&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tubbar''' <br /> &quot;white&quot;<br /> |'''tubabra''' <br /> &quot;be white&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kindis''' <br /> &quot;clear&quot;<br /> |'''kinitsa''' <br /> &quot;be clear&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''turu'''<br /> &quot;wrong&quot;<br /> |'''turva''', '''terva'''<br /> &quot;be wrong&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''divlaas'''<br /> &quot;sick, ill&quot;<br /> |'''dulaasa'''<br /> &quot;be sick, be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tadʒon'''<br /> &quot;pleased&quot;<br /> |'''todʒna'''<br /> &quot;be pleased&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''eskataʃi'''<br /> &quot;acquainted&quot;<br /> |'''eskataʃʃa''', '''eskatʃa'''<br /> &quot;be acquainted&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Another suffix is '''-(a)st(a)-''', meaning &quot;to get&quot; or &quot;to become&quot;. The first optional '''-a-''' appears when necessary, to avoid unsuitable consonant clusters, while the final '''-a''' is only used in the infinitive form of the verb - i.e., without any suffixes. There are some irregular formations.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''' <br /> &quot;great&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølnasta''' <br /> &quot;become great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitrasta''' <br /> &quot;get tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar''' <br /> &quot;big, large&quot;<br /> |'''nahasta''', '''narasta''' <br /> &quot;get big&quot;, &quot;increase&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr''' <br /> &quot;little, small&quot;<br /> |'''kitrasta''', '''katrasta''', '''kirrasta''' <br /> &quot;get smaller&quot;, &quot;decrease&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani''' <br /> &quot;good&quot;<br /> |'''suwanasta'''<br /> &quot;become good&quot;<br /> <br /> '''suwasta''', '''sawasta''', '''suwnasta''' <br /> <br /> &quot;get better&quot;, &quot;improve&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''' , '''daggussa'''<br /> &quot;bad&quot;<br /> |'''daggusasta''', '''daggussasta''' <br /> &quot;become bad&quot;<br /> <br /> '''daggasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get worse&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ'''<br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛsta'''<br /> &quot;become old&quot;<br /> <br /> '''dotrasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get older&quot;, &quot;to age&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan'''<br /> &quot;beautiful<br /> |'''tossanasta'''<br /> &quot;become beautiful&quot;<br /> <br /> '''tossasta''', '''tosnasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get prettier&quot;, &quot;beautify&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki'''<br /> &quot;false&quot;, &quot;fake&quot;<br /> |'''ablikasta'''<br /> &quot;become invalid&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''divlaas'''<br /> &quot;sick, ill&quot;<br /> |'''dulaasta'''<br /> &quot;be sick, be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''eskataʃi'''<br /> &quot;acquainted&quot;<br /> |'''eskatʃasta'''<br /> &quot;get acquainted&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> A few other suffixes perform similar tasks, with more specific meanings. These are usually quite regular. The most productive among these suffixes are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-we'''<br /> |&quot;to remain&quot;, &quot;still be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-kas'''<br /> |&quot;to seem&quot;, &quot;to appear&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-ʃyn'''<br /> |&quot;to pretend to be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-dobb(a)-'''<br /> |&quot;to cease to be&quot;, &quot;to be no longer&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-guj'''<br /> |&quot;to be a little bit&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''nøssar''' <br /> &quot;calm&quot;<br /> |'''nøssarwe''' &quot;remain calm&quot;, &quot;keep calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarkaʃ''' &quot;seem/appear calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarʃyn''' &quot;pretend to be calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssardobba''' &quot;cease to be calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarguj''' &quot;be a little calm&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ''' <br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛkaʃ''' &quot;seem/appear old&quot;<br /> <br /> '''dotrɛguj''' &quot;be a little old&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Comparative === <br /> The comparative of superiority of an adjective can be made by adding the suffix '''-ju''' to the stem. This suffix doubles a preceeding consonant, or becomes '''-jju''' when preceeded by a vowel. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''fɛrennju grats''' &quot;a smarter boy&quot;<br /> * '''duʃʃju halajn''' &quot;cleaner water&quot;<br /> * '''selakkju kanaris''' &quot;prettier eyes&quot;<br /> * '''naharrju piktaraʃ''' &quot;a bigger problem&quot;<br /> * '''kittrju piktaraʃ''' &quot;a smaller problem&quot; <br /> * '''suwanijju astrønɛl''' &quot;a better idea&quot;<br /> * '''daggussju''' / '''daggussajju astrønɛl''' &quot;a worse idea&quot;<br /> * '''dotrɛjju pɛten''' &quot;an older book&quot;<br /> <br /> Comparative adjectives may be turned into verbs regularly with the suffix '''-a''', which then becomes '''-wa'''. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølennju''' <br /> &quot;greater&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølennjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be greater&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitrajju''' <br /> &quot;more tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitrajjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be more tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwanijju''' <br /> &quot;better&quot;<br /> |'''suwanijjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be better&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulinnju''' <br /> &quot;newer&quot;<br /> |'''sulinnjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be newer&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛjju''' <br /> &quot;older&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛjjuwa'''<br /> &quot;be older&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossannju''' <br /> &quot;more beautiful&quot;<br /> |'''tossannjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be more beautiful&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The complement of a comparison, corresponding to the conjunction &quot;than&quot;, is placed in the ablative case. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''Nuv pɛten laej suwanijju tuhafɛv.''' &quot;This book is better than that one&quot;<br /> * '''Nuv pɛten suwanijjuwaej tuhafɛv.''' (idem)<br /> * '''Tru dukʃatr laej dotrɛjju dɛv egastɛvɛv.''' &quot;The boss is older than the farmer&quot;<br /> * '''Tru dukʃatr dotrɛjjuwaej dɛv egastɛvɛv.''' (idem)<br /> <br /> == Numerals ==<br /> The basic cardinal numbers are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |0 || '''kal''', '''kahtral'''<br /> |-<br /> |1 || '''mihen'''<br /> |-<br /> |2 || '''dahas'''<br /> |-<br /> |3 || '''travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |4 || '''gazen'''<br /> |-<br /> |5 || '''kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |6 || '''pinjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |7 || '''høtak'''<br /> |-<br /> |8 || '''magɛl'''<br /> |-<br /> |9 || '''donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |10 || '''zɛhɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |11 || '''zɛhɛv mihen''', '''zɛvhen'''<br /> |-<br /> |12 || '''zɛhɛv dahas''', '''zɛvdas'''<br /> |-<br /> |13 || '''zɛhɛv travis''', '''zɛvtras'''<br /> |-<br /> |14 || '''zɛhɛv gazen''', '''zɛvzen'''<br /> |-<br /> |15 || '''zɛhɛv kɛʃav''', '''zɛvkʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |16 || '''zɛhɛv pinjan''', '''zɛvpan'''<br /> |-<br /> |17 || '''zɛhɛv høtak''','''zɛvhøk'''<br /> |-<br /> |18 || '''zɛhɛv magɛl''', '''zɛvmal'''<br /> |-<br /> |19 || '''zɛhɛv donwaʒ''', '''zɛvdaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |20 || '''dahassɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |30 || '''travissɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |40 || '''gazennɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |50 || '''kɛʃavvɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |60 || '''pinjannɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |70 || '''høtakkɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |80 || '''magɛllɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |90 || '''donwaʒʒɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |100 || '''lakin'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,000 || '''tatrimi'''<br /> |-<br /> |10,000 || '''zɛhɛv tatrimi'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Numbers are composed by joining the base units above, from bigger to lower. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |23 || '''dahassɛv travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |45 || '''gazennɛv kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |67 || '''pinjannɛv høtak'''<br /> |-<br /> |89 || '''magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |123 || '''lakin dahassɛv travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |456 || '''gazen lakin kɛʃavvɛv pinjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |789 || '''høtak lakin magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,234 || '''tatrimi dahas lakin travissɛv gazen'''<br /> |-<br /> |5,678 || '''kɛʃav tatrimi pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl'''<br /> |-<br /> |12,345 || '''zɛvdas tatrimi travis lakin gazennɛv kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |678,910 || '''pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl tatrimi donwaʒ lakin zɛhɛv'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Ordinal numbers are created with the suffix '''-iki'''. Ex.: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |1st || '''miheniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |2nd || '''dahasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |3rd || '''travisiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |4th || '''gazeniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |5th || '''kɛʃaviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |6th || '''pinjaniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |7th || '''høtakiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |8th || '''magɛliki'''<br /> |-<br /> |9th || '''donwaʒiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |10th || '''zɛhɛviki''', '''zɛhviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |11th || '''zɛvheniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |12th || '''zɛvdasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |13th || '''zɛvtrasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |14th || '''zɛvzeniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |15th || '''zɛvkʃaviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |16th || '''zɛvpaniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |17th || '''zɛvhøkiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |18th || '''zɛvmaliki'''<br /> |-<br /> |19th || '''zɛvdaʒiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |20th || '''dahassɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |30th || '''travissɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |40th || '''gazennɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |50th || '''kɛʃavvɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |60th || '''pinjannɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |70th || '''høtakkɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |80th || '''magɛllɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |90th || '''donwaʒʒɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |100th || '''lakiniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,000th || '''tatrimiiki'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Pronouns ==<br /> <br /> === Personal Pronouns ===<br /> Personal Pronouns in Dahur indicate person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and number (singular, dual, plural).<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|1st Person<br /> |'''dɛ''' &quot;I&quot; , &quot;me&quot;<br /> |'''ʃes''' &quot;we both&quot;<br /> |'''ʃɛn''' &quot;we&quot;, &quot;us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''dɛ'''<br /> |'''ʃes'''<br /> |'''ʃɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''dɛa''', '''da'''<br /> |'''ʃeas''', '''ʃas'''<br /> |'''ʃan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''dɛw''', '''du'''<br /> |'''ʃeus''', '''ʃews''', '''ʃus'''<br /> |'''ʃɛun''', '''ʃɛwn''', '''ʃun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''dɛk'''<br /> |'''ʃesk'''<br /> |'''ʃɛkɛn''', '''ʃkɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''dɛbb'''<br /> |'''ʃeps'''<br /> |'''ʃɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''dɛm'''<br /> |'''ʃems'''<br /> |'''ʃɛom''', '''ʃom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |'''ʃɛfs'''<br /> |'''ʃɛɛv''', '''ʃɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''dɛjøtr''', '''dɛtr'''<br /> |'''ʃesøtr'''<br /> |'''ʃɛtrøn''', '''ʃtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''dɛt'''<br /> |'''ʃets'''<br /> |'''ʃɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|2nd Person<br /> |'''hej''' &quot;you (sg.), thou&quot;<br /> |'''kwes''' &quot;you both&quot;<br /> |'''kwɛn''' &quot;you (pl.)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''hej'''<br /> |'''kwes'''<br /> |'''kwɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''heja''', '''ja'''<br /> |'''kweas''', '''kwas'''<br /> |'''kwɛan''', '''kwan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''heju''', '''ju'''<br /> |'''kweus'''<br /> |'''kwɛun''', '''kun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''heik''', '''hejik'''<br /> |'''kwesk'''<br /> |'''kwɛnek''', '''kwɛnk'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''heibb''', '''hibb'''<br /> |'''kweps'''<br /> |'''kwɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''heim''', '''him'''<br /> |'''kwems'''<br /> |'''kwɛom''', '''kwɛm''', '''kwom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''hejɛv''', '''jɛv'''<br /> |'''kwɛfs'''<br /> |'''kwɛɛv''', '''kwɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''hejøtr''', '''hjøtr'''<br /> |'''kwesøtr'''<br /> |'''kwɛtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Vocative<br /> |'''heje'''<br /> |'''kwejes'''<br /> |'''kwɛjɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''hɛt'''<br /> |'''kwets'''<br /> |'''kwɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|3rd Person<br /> |'''nar''' &quot;he&quot;, &quot;she&quot;, &quot;it&quot;<br /> |'''ras''' &quot;they both&quot;<br /> |'''ren''' &quot;they&quot;, &quot;them&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''nar'''<br /> |'''ras'''<br /> |'''rɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''nara''', '''ra'''<br /> |'''ras'''<br /> |'''rɛan''', '''ran'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''naru''', '''ru'''<br /> |'''raus''', '''raws''', '''rus'''<br /> |'''rɛun''', '''rɛwn''', '''run'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''narɛk''', '''rɛk'''<br /> |'''resk'''<br /> |'''rɛkɛn''', '''ɛrken'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''narebb''', '''rebb'''<br /> |'''reps'''<br /> |'''rɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''narom''', '''rom'''<br /> |'''rems'''<br /> |'''rɛnom''', '''rom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''narɛv''', '''rɛv'''<br /> |'''rɛfs'''<br /> |'''rɛɛv''', '''rɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''narøtr''', '''røtr'''<br /> |'''resøtr'''<br /> |'''rɛtrøn''', '''ɛrtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''rɛt'''<br /> |'''rets'''<br /> |'''rɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The '''genitive''' forms work as possessive pronouns. In that case, the definite article is optional. Ex.: <br /> * '''tru dɛk astrønɛl''', '''dɛk astrønɛl''' &quot;my idea&quot;<br /> * '''na heik kʃalima''', '''heik kʃalima''' &quot;your hair (accus.)&quot;<br /> * '''trom narɛk kɛʃevom''', '''narɛk kɛʃevom''' &quot;with his/her hammer (instr.)&quot;<br /> * '''tu dɛk menirun''', '''dɛk menirun''' &quot;to my children (dat.)&quot;<br /> <br /> Object pronouns usually come before the verb. The shorter, unstressed version is preferred. Ex.: <br /> * '''Ja angenus.''' &quot;I can see you (sing.).&quot;<br /> * '''Kwas angenus.''' &quot;I can see you two.&quot;<br /> * '''Kwan angenus.''' &quot;I can see you (pl.).&quot;<br /> * '''Ra angenus.''' &quot;I can see it/him/her.&quot;<br /> * '''Ras angenus.''' &quot;I can see them both.&quot;<br /> * '''Ran angenus.''' &quot;I can see them.&quot;<br /> * '''Da angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see me.&quot;<br /> * '''ʃas angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see us both.&quot;<br /> * '''ʃan angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see us.&quot;<br /> <br /> An object pronoun may also appear after the verb. In that case, the preference is for the longer, stressed versions. Ex.:<br /> * '''Angenus ja/heja.''' &quot;I can see you (sing.).&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus kweas/kwas.''' &quot;I can see you two.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus kwɛan/kwan.''' &quot;I can see you (pl.).&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus nara/ra.''' &quot;I can see it/him/her.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus ras.''' &quot;I can see them both.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus rɛan/ran.''' &quot;I can see them.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej dɛa/da.''' &quot;He/she can see me.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej ʃeas/ʃas.''' &quot;He/she can see us both.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej ʃan.''' &quot;He/she can see us.&quot;<br /> <br /> The most common case for a verb complement is the accusative. However, verbs may require different cases. Ex.: <br /> * '''Kun dagsuttoj!''' &quot;It will harm you!&quot; / &quot;It will be harmful to you!&quot; ('''dagusta''' &quot;harm, be harmful&quot; + dat.)<br /> * '''Ja/Ju darʃinɔn.''' &quot;We trust you.&quot; ('''darʃin''' &quot;trust&quot; + acc./dat.)<br /> * '''Poglattindsa narɛv/rɛv''' &quot;I didn't use it.&quot; ('''poglar''' &quot;use&quot; + abl.)<br /> * '''Ra twiʃnettmis.''' &quot;You drank it (all).&quot; / '''Rɛt twiʃnettmis.''' &quot;You drank (some of) it.&quot; '''twiʃin''' &quot;drink&quot; +acc. (whole), +part. (specific amount)<br /> <br /> === Demonstrative Pronouns ===<br /> The main demonstrative pronouns are: <br /> <br /> * '''nuv''' &quot;this, these&quot;<br /> * '''tuhaf''' &quot;that, those&quot;<br /> <br /> When accompanying a noun, they behave as adjectives and are not inflected. <br /> <br /> When used on their own, they stand as nouns and are inflected according to the class of the intended noun. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''Nuv grats laej fɛrennju nuvɛv.''' &quot;This boy is smarter than this one.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> === Interrogative Pronouns ===<br /> <br /> === Indefinite Pronouns ===<br /> <br /> === Relative Pronoun ===<br /> The main relative pronoun in Dahur is '''jao''', as shown in the following table. <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''jao'''<br /> |'''jes'''<br /> |'''jen'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''jaa''', '''ja'''<br /> |'''jeas''', '''jas'''<br /> |'''jaan''', '''jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''jau''', '''jaw'''<br /> |'''jeus''', '''jews'''<br /> |'''jeun''', '''jewn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''jak'''<br /> |'''jesk'''<br /> |'''jenk'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''jaebb'''<br /> |'''jaeps'''<br /> |'''jaemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''jaom'''<br /> |'''jaoms'''<br /> |'''jaom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''jaɛv'''<br /> |'''jaɛfs'''<br /> |'''janɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''jaøtr'''<br /> |'''jasøtr'''<br /> |'''jatrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> | - <br /> |'''jets'''<br /> |'''jent'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The pronoun agrees in number with the antecedent, but its case is determined by its function in the subordinate clause. Ex.:<br /> * '''tru grats jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;the boy (nom.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''na gratsa jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;the boy (accus.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''kʃu gratsu jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;to the boy (dat.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''kis gratsak jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;of the boy (gen.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''trø gratsøtr jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;by the boy (erg.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''tann gratsen jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;the boys (nom.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''ta gratsan jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;the boys (accus.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tun gratsun jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;to the boys (dat.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tak gratsken jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr gratsetrøn jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tru grats jaa kahettsa''' &quot;the boy (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''na gratsa jaa kahettsa''' &quot;the boy (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''kʃu gratsu jaa kahettsa''' &quot;to the boy (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''kis gratsak jaa kahettsa''' &quot;of the boy (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''trø gratsøtr jaa kahettsa''' &quot;by the boy (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tann gratsen jaan kahettsa''' &quot;the boys (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''ta gratsan jaan kahettsa''' &quot;the boys (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tun gratsun jaan kahettsa''' &quot;to the boys (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tak gratsken jaan kahettsa''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr gratsetrøn jaan kahettsa''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> <br /> Besides this pronoun, relative clauses may also be formed with participles. <br /> <br /> Ex.:<br /> <br /> * '''tru ateʃfanur grats''' &quot;the boy (nom.) who is running away&quot; <br /> * '''na ateʃfanur gratsa''' &quot;the boy (accus.) who is running away&quot; <br /> * '''tak ateʃfanur gratsken''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) who are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tru dɛtr kahettek grats''', '''tru grats dɛtr kahettek''' &quot;the boy (nom.) whom I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr dɛtr kahettek gratsetrøn''', '''tøtr gratsetrøn dɛtr kahettek''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) whom I saw&quot;<br /> <br /> == Verbs ==<br /> <br /> === Finite Forms ===<br /> <br /> Verbs in Dahur have different stems indicating aspect. The conjugation uses different sets of endings to indicate tense or time. <br /> <br /> The basic verb stems are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Aspect<br /> !Meaning<br /> !Form<br /> |-<br /> |Generic<br /> |''verbal idea without a specific context, time or aspect''<br /> |the basic stem of the verb<br /> |-<br /> |Cursive (Progressive; Continuous)<br /> |''action ongoing at the moment of reference<br /> |prefix '''a-''' and suffix '''-(a)n-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Aorist<br /> |''a complete or punctual action''<br /> |suffix '''-(e)tt-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Perfect<br /> |''the result of an action that happened before the reference time''<br /> |suffix '''-(l)l(a)-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Unrealised (Future)<br /> |''action as not realised in relation to the reference time''<br /> |prefix '''u-''' and suffix '''-(u)ʃ-''' <br /> |-<br /> |Conditional<br /> |''irrealis, usually an action depending on another''<br /> |prefix '''i-''' (doubling the initial consonant) and suffix '''-i-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Stem formation is often irregular. <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Generic<br /> !Cursive<br /> !Aorist<br /> !Perfect<br /> !Unrealised<br /> !Conditional <br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmal-'''<br /> |'''akʃmalan-'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalett-'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalla-'''<br /> |'''ukaʃmaluʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkaʃmali-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''la-'''<br /> |'''alan-'''<br /> |'''latt-'''<br /> |'''lalla-'''<br /> |'''ulauʃ-'''<br /> |'''illai-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''wennin''' &quot;live&quot; <br /> |'''wennin-'''<br /> |'''awann-'''<br /> |'''wennett-'''<br /> |'''wennilla-'''<br /> |'''uwenninʃ-'''<br /> |'''iwennini-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadra-'''<br /> |'''agandran-'''<br /> |'''gadrett-'''<br /> |'''gadralla-'''<br /> |'''ugadruʃ-'''<br /> |'''iggadri-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''tefʃiv''' &quot;flee&quot;<br /> |'''tefʃiv-'''<br /> |'''ateʃfan-'''<br /> |'''tefʃivett-'''<br /> |'''tefʃivla-'''<br /> |'''utefʃivuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittefʃivi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maʃkintɾod''' &quot;represent&quot;<br /> |'''maʃkintɾod-'''<br /> |'''amaʃkintɾon-'''<br /> |'''maʃkintɾott-'''<br /> |'''maʃkintɾolla-'''<br /> |'''umaʃkintɾotʃ-'''<br /> |'''immaʃkintɾodi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kajnaar''' &quot;jump&quot;<br /> |'''kajnaar-'''<br /> |'''akajnaan-'''<br /> |'''kajnerett-'''<br /> |'''kajnaalla-'''<br /> |'''ukajnaaruʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkajnaari-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys''' &quot;take care of&quot;<br /> |'''taldesyys-'''<br /> |'''ataldesyyn-'''<br /> |'''taldesyyst-'''<br /> |'''taldesyyll-'''<br /> |'''utaldesyyʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittaldesyysi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kota-'''<br /> |'''ankon-'''<br /> |'''kotatt-'''<br /> |'''kekolla-'''<br /> |'''ukotuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkoti-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussi-'''<br /> |'''ahsejn-'''<br /> |'''hust-'''<br /> |'''huzilla-'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ihusseji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''ken-''', '''kena-'''<br /> |'''angen-'''<br /> |'''kahett-'''<br /> |'''kenalla-''', '''kralla-'''<br /> |'''ukunuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkeni-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''mend''' &quot;become&quot;<br /> |'''mend-'''<br /> |'''amdan-'''<br /> |'''menett-'''<br /> |'''mendla-'''<br /> |'''umenduʃ-'''<br /> |'''immendi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustaj-''', '''ustaji-'''<br /> |'''anstajn-''', '''anstajin-'''<br /> |'''ustatt-''', '''ustitt-'''<br /> |'''ustalla-''', '''ustilla-'''<br /> |'''ustajuʃ-'''<br /> |'''istaji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''maj-'''<br /> |'''amann-'''<br /> |'''menett-'''<br /> |'''mjalla-'''<br /> |'''umujuʃ-'''<br /> |'''immaji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trak-'''<br /> |'''atrakan-'''<br /> |'''tetrakett-'''<br /> |'''ketralla-'''<br /> |'''utrakʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittraggi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''pakt''' &quot;understand&quot;<br /> |'''pakt-'''<br /> |'''ampakn-'''<br /> |'''pakett-'''<br /> |'''paktalla-'''<br /> |'''upaktuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ippakti-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''durʃin''' &quot;seem, appear&quot;<br /> |'''durʃin-'''<br /> |'''adurʃan-'''<br /> |'''durʃint-'''<br /> |'''durʃilla-'''<br /> |'''udurʃinʃ-'''<br /> |'''iddurʃini-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka''' &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |'''ʃaka-'''<br /> |'''aʃkan-'''<br /> |'''ʃakkatt-'''<br /> |'''ʃakalla-'''<br /> |'''uʃakkuʃ-'''<br /> |'''iʃakki-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kʃa''' [passive voice auxiliary]<br /> |'''kʃa-'''<br /> |'''akʃan-'''<br /> |'''kʃatt-'''<br /> |'''kʃalla-'''<br /> |'''ukʃuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkʃi-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The personal endings are : <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Present<br /> !Past<br /> !Future<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-sa'''<br /> |'''-os'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''-im'''<br /> |'''-mis'''<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''-ej'''<br /> |'''-jes'''<br /> |'''-oj'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''-ɔn'''<br /> |'''-sɔn'''<br /> |'''-on'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''-ib'''<br /> |'''-ips'''<br /> |'''-ob'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''-ɛw'''<br /> |'''-sɛw'''<br /> |'''-ow'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The following combinations of stem + ending set occur: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |Present<br /> |Past<br /> |Future<br /> |-<br /> |Generic<br /> !Simple <br /> Present<br /> !Habitual<br /> Past (&quot;used to&quot;)<br /> !Indefinite<br /> Future<br /> |-<br /> |Cursive<br /> !Present<br /> Continuous<br /> !Past <br /> Continuous<br /> !Future<br /> Progressive<br /> |-<br /> |Aorist<br /> |<br /> !Simple <br /> Past (Aorist)<br /> !Definite Future<br /> (Specific, Punctual)<br /> |-<br /> |Perfect<br /> !Present <br /> Perfect<br /> !Past<br /> Perfect<br /> !Future <br /> Perfect<br /> |-<br /> |Unrealised<br /> !Near <br /> Future<br /> !Unrealised <br /> Past (&quot;would&quot;)<br /> !Future <br /> (Remote) <br /> |-<br /> |Conditional <br /> !Conditional <br /> Present<br /> !Conditional <br /> Past<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> For the imperative, the base form of the verb is used. Optionally, the particle '''a''' can be used before the verb. Ex.: <br /> * '''Kaʃmal!''' / '''A kaʃmal!''' &quot;Take!&quot;<br /> * '''Hussi!''' / '''A hussi!''' &quot;Listen!&quot;<br /> * '''Spa kajnaar!''' / '''A spa kajnaar!''' &quot;Don't jump!&quot;<br /> <br /> While the formation of aspect stems is often irregular, the combination of stem + endings is usually quite regular and predictable. The usual epenthetic phonemes occur, mostly the semivowels ('''j''' and '''w'''), when two vowels come together, but these are more an artifact of speech and aren't usually indicated in writing. Ex.: <br /> * '''kaʃmallaus''', '''kaʃmallawus''' <br /> * '''kaʃmallaim''', '''kaʃmallajim''' <br /> * '''kaʃmallaej''', '''kaʃmallajej''', '''kaʃmallahej'''<br /> * '''kaʃmallaɔn''', '''kaʃmallawɔn''' <br /> * '''iggadriips''', '''iggadrijips'''<br /> * '''iggadrius''', '''iggadrijus'''<br /> * &amp;c.<br /> <br /> ==== Negative ====<br /> <br /> The infix '''-(i)nd-''', placed before the personal endings, makes a verb negative. Ex.: <br /> * '''landus''' &quot;I am not&quot;<br /> * '''lattindsɛw''' &quot;they weren't&quot;<br /> * '''hussindoj''' &quot;he/she won't listen&quot;<br /> * '''ateʃfanindips''' &quot;you weren't running away&quot;<br /> <br /> The emphatic negative particle '''spa''' may be used before the verb, always in the negative form. Ex.: <br /> * '''spa landus''' &quot;I am most certainly not&quot;<br /> * '''spa lattindsɛw''' &quot;they definitely weren't&quot;<br /> * '''spa hussindoj''' &quot;he/she will not listen at all&quot;<br /> * '''spa ateʃfanindips''' &quot;you really weren't running away&quot;<br /> <br /> This particle '''spa''' is also used in a negative command, with the base form of the verb. In that case, it doesn't necessarily have an emphatic meaning. Ex.: <br /> * '''Spa hussi!''' / '''A spa hussi!''' &quot;Don't listen!&quot;<br /> <br /> === Nominal Forms ===<br /> <br /> ==== Infinitive ==== <br /> <br /> The Dahur verb has infinitives for the Generic, Cursive, Aorist, Perfect and Unrealised aspects. They are formed by adding the ending '''-eh''' to the corresponding stem. The prefix '''u-''' of the Unrealised aspect is optional in the infinitive. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Generic<br /> !Cursive<br /> !Aorist<br /> !Perfect<br /> !Unrealised<br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmaleh'''<br /> |'''akʃmalaneh'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaletteh'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaeh'''<br /> |'''ukaʃmaluʃeh''', '''kaʃmaluʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''laeh'''<br /> |'''alaneh'''<br /> |'''latteh'''<br /> |'''lallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)lauʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadraeh'''<br /> |'''agandraneh'''<br /> |'''gadretteh'''<br /> |'''gadrallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)gadruʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kotaeh'''<br /> |'''ankoneh'''<br /> |'''kotatteh'''<br /> |'''kekollaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)kotuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussieh'''<br /> |'''ahsejneh'''<br /> |'''husteh'''<br /> |'''huzillaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)hussuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''keneh'''<br /> |'''angeneh'''<br /> |'''kahetteh'''<br /> |'''kenallaeh''', '''krallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)kunuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustajeh'''<br /> |'''anstajneh'''<br /> |'''ustatteh''', '''ustitteh'''<br /> |'''ustallaeh''', '''ustillaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)stajuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''majeh'''<br /> |'''amanneh'''<br /> |'''menetteh'''<br /> |'''mjallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)mujuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trakeh'''<br /> |'''atrakaneh'''<br /> |'''tetraketteh'''<br /> |'''ketrallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)trakʃeh'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The infinitive may be used as a noun, but also with certain auxiliary verbs. When a participle is used as a noun, usually the definite article may be omitted. Ex.: <br /> <br /> *'''(Tru) kotaeh laej suwani.''' / '''(Tru) kotaeh suwanjaej.''' &quot;Eating is good.&quot;<br /> <br /> ==== Participle ====<br /> Participles are built by adding specific suffixes to the corresponding stems of the verb: <br /> * '''-ur''' (active participle)<br /> * '''-ek''' (passive participle)<br /> <br /> The prefix '''u-''' of the unrealised stem is dropped.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Generic<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Cursive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Aorist<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmalur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalek'''<br /> |'''akʃmalanur'''<br /> |'''akʃmalanek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalettur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalettek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaur''', '''kaʃmallur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaek''', '''kaʃmallek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaluʃur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaluʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''laur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''alanur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lattur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lallaur''', '''lallur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lauʃur'''<br /> | <br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadraur'''<br /> |'''gadraek'''<br /> |'''agandranur'''<br /> |'''agandranek'''<br /> |'''gadrettur'''<br /> |'''gadrettek'''<br /> |'''gadrallur'''<br /> |'''gadrallek'''<br /> |'''gadruʃur'''<br /> |'''gadruʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kotaur'''<br /> |'''kotaek'''<br /> |'''ankonur'''<br /> |'''ankonek'''<br /> |'''kotattur'''<br /> |'''kotattek'''<br /> |'''kekollur'''<br /> |'''kekollek'''<br /> |'''kotuʃur'''<br /> |'''kotuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussiur'''<br /> |'''hussiek'''<br /> |'''ahsejnur'''<br /> |'''ahsejnek'''<br /> |'''hustur'''<br /> |'''hustek'''<br /> |'''huzillaur'''<br /> |'''huzillaek'''<br /> |'''hussuʃur'''<br /> |'''hussuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''kenur'''<br /> |'''kenek'''<br /> |'''angenur'''<br /> |'''angenek'''<br /> |'''kahettur'''<br /> |'''kahettek'''<br /> |'''kenallur''', '''krallur'''<br /> |'''kenallek''', '''krallek'''<br /> |'''kunuʃur'''<br /> |'''kunuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustajur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''anstajnur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustattur''', '''ustittur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustallur''', '''ustillek'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustajuʃur'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''majur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''amannur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''menettur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''mjallur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''mujuʃur'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trakur'''<br /> |'''trakek'''<br /> |'''atrakanur'''<br /> |'''atrakanek'''<br /> |'''tetrakettur'''<br /> |'''tetrakettek'''<br /> |'''ketrallur'''<br /> |'''ketrallek'''<br /> |'''trakʃur'''<br /> |'''trakʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka''' &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |'''ʃakaur'''<br /> |'''ʃakaek'''<br /> |'''aʃkanur'''<br /> |'''aʃkanek'''<br /> |'''ʃakkattur'''<br /> |'''ʃakkattek'''<br /> |'''ʃakallur'''<br /> |'''ʃakallek'''<br /> |'''ʃakkuʃur'''<br /> |'''ʃakkuʃek'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The corresponding negative versions of these participles are formed regularly with the suffix '''-(i)nd-'''. Ex.:<br /> * '''landur''' &quot;not being&quot;<br /> * '''angenindur''' &quot;not seeing&quot;<br /> * '''gradrettindek''' &quot;not written&quot;<br /> * '''ketrallindur''' &quot;who/which had not done&quot;<br /> * '''aʃkanindek''' &quot;which isn't being hunted&quot;<br /> <br /> === Passive Voice ===<br /> <br /> The passive voice is built with the auxiliary '''kʃa''', conjugated regularly, followed by the base form of the verb. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''akʃanus taldesyys''' &quot;I'm being taken care of&quot;<br /> * '''akʃanindmis ken''' &quot;you were not being seen&quot;<br /> * '''kʃallaɔn kaʃmal''' &quot;we have been taken&quot;<br /> * '''kʃattsɛw kota''' &quot;they were eaten&quot;<br /> * '''ikkʃindej trak''' &quot;if it's not done&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> === Conjugation ===<br /> Next you have a few verbs, conjugated in all its forms.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|Verb '''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Present<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Continuous <br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Perfect <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Near Future <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Present <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''laus'''<br /> |'''landus'''<br /> |'''alanus'''<br /> |'''alanindus'''<br /> |'''lallaus'''<br /> |'''lallandus'''<br /> |'''ulauʃus'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindus'''<br /> |'''illaius'''<br /> |'''illaindus'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''laim'''<br /> |'''landim'''<br /> |'''alanim'''<br /> |'''alanindim'''<br /> |'''lallaim'''<br /> |'''lallandim'''<br /> |'''ulauʃim'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindim'''<br /> |'''illaiim'''<br /> |'''illaindim'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''laej'''<br /> |'''landej'''<br /> |'''alanej'''<br /> |'''alanindej'''<br /> |'''lallaej'''<br /> |'''lallandej'''<br /> |'''ulauʃej'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindej'''<br /> |'''illaiej'''<br /> |'''illaindej'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''laɔn'''<br /> |'''landɔn'''<br /> |'''alanɔn'''<br /> |'''alanindɔn'''<br /> |'''lallaɔn'''<br /> |'''lallandɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindɔn'''<br /> |'''illaiɔn'''<br /> |'''illaindɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laib'''<br /> |'''landib'''<br /> |'''alanib'''<br /> |'''alanindib'''<br /> |'''lallaib'''<br /> |'''lallandib'''<br /> |'''ulauʃib'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindib'''<br /> |'''illaiib'''<br /> |'''illaindib'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''laɛw'''<br /> |'''landɛw'''<br /> |'''alanɛw'''<br /> |'''alanindɛw'''<br /> |'''lallaɛw'''<br /> |'''lallandɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindɛw'''<br /> |'''illaiɛw'''<br /> |'''illaindɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Habitual Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Continuous <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Past <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Past <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''lasa'''<br /> |'''landsa'''<br /> |'''alansa'''<br /> |'''alanindsa'''<br /> |'''lattsa'''<br /> |'''lattindsa'''<br /> |'''lallasa'''<br /> |'''lallandsa'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsa'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsa'''<br /> |'''illaisa'''<br /> |'''illaindsa'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''lamis'''<br /> |'''landmis'''<br /> |'''alanmis'''<br /> |'''alanindmis'''<br /> |'''lattmis'''<br /> |'''lattindmis'''<br /> |'''lallamis'''<br /> |'''lallandmis'''<br /> |'''ulauʃmis'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindmis'''<br /> |'''illaimis'''<br /> |'''illaindmis'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''lajes'''<br /> |'''landjes'''<br /> |'''alanjes'''<br /> |'''alanindjes'''<br /> |'''lattjes'''<br /> |'''lattindjes'''<br /> |'''lallajes'''<br /> |'''lallandjes'''<br /> |'''ulauʃjes'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindjes'''<br /> |'''illaijes'''<br /> |'''illaindjes'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''lasɔn'''<br /> |'''landsɔn'''<br /> |'''alansɔn'''<br /> |'''alanindsɔn'''<br /> |'''lattsɔn'''<br /> |'''lattindsɔn'''<br /> |'''lallasɔn'''<br /> |'''lallandsɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsɔn'''<br /> |'''illaisɔn'''<br /> |'''illaiindsɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laips'''<br /> |'''landips'''<br /> |'''alanips'''<br /> |'''alanindips'''<br /> |'''lattips'''<br /> |'''lattindips'''<br /> |'''lallaips'''<br /> |'''lallandips'''<br /> |'''ulauʃips'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindips'''<br /> |'''illaiips'''<br /> |'''illaindips'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''lasɛw'''<br /> |'''landsɛw'''<br /> |'''alansɛw'''<br /> |'''alanindsɛw'''<br /> |'''lattsɛw'''<br /> |'''lattindsɛw'''<br /> |'''lallasɛw'''<br /> |'''lallandsɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsɛw'''<br /> |'''illaisɛw'''<br /> |'''illaindsɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Indefinite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Progressive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Definite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Remote Future<br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''laos'''<br /> |'''landos'''<br /> |'''alanos'''<br /> |'''alanindos'''<br /> |'''lattos'''<br /> |'''lattindos'''<br /> |'''lallaos'''<br /> |'''lallandos'''<br /> |'''ulauʃos'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindos'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''laom'''<br /> |'''landom'''<br /> |'''alanom'''<br /> |'''alanindom'''<br /> |'''lattom'''<br /> |'''lattindom'''<br /> |'''lallaom'''<br /> |'''lallandom'''<br /> |'''ulauʃom'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindom'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''laoj'''<br /> |'''landoj'''<br /> |'''alanoj'''<br /> |'''alanindoj'''<br /> |'''lattoj'''<br /> |'''lattindoj'''<br /> |'''lallaoj'''<br /> |'''lallandoj'''<br /> |'''ulauʃoj'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindoj'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''laon'''<br /> |'''landon'''<br /> |'''alanon'''<br /> |'''alanindon'''<br /> |'''latton'''<br /> |'''lattindon'''<br /> |'''lallaon'''<br /> |'''lallandon'''<br /> |'''ulauʃon'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindon'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laob'''<br /> |'''landob'''<br /> |'''alanob'''<br /> |'''alanindob'''<br /> |'''lattob'''<br /> |'''lattindob'''<br /> |'''lallaob'''<br /> |'''lallandob'''<br /> |'''ulauʃob'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindob'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''laow'''<br /> |'''landow'''<br /> |'''alanow'''<br /> |'''alanindow'''<br /> |'''lattow'''<br /> |'''lattindow'''<br /> |'''lallaow'''<br /> |'''lallandow'''<br /> |'''ulauʃow'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindow'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|Verb '''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Present<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Continuous <br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Perfect <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Near Future <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Present <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussius'''<br /> |'''hussindus'''<br /> |'''ahsejnus'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindus'''<br /> |'''huzillaus'''<br /> |'''huzillandus'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃus'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindus'''<br /> |'''ihussejius'''<br /> |'''ihussejindus'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussiim'''<br /> |'''hussindim'''<br /> |'''ahsejnim'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindim'''<br /> |'''huzillaim'''<br /> |'''huzillandim'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃim'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindim'''<br /> |'''ihussejiim'''<br /> |'''ihussejindim'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussije'''<br /> |'''hussindje'''<br /> |'''ahsejnje'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindje'''<br /> |'''huzillaje'''<br /> |'''huzillandje'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃje'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindje'''<br /> |'''ihussejije'''<br /> |'''ihussejindje'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussiɔn'''<br /> |'''hussindɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillaɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillandɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejiɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejindɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiib'''<br /> |'''hussindib'''<br /> |'''ahsejnib'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindib'''<br /> |'''huzillaib'''<br /> |'''huzillandib'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃib'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindib'''<br /> |'''ihussejiib'''<br /> |'''ihussejindib'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussiɛw'''<br /> |'''hussindɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillaɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillandɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejiɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejindɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Habitual Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Continuous <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Past <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Past <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussisa'''<br /> |'''hussindsa'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsa'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsa'''<br /> |'''hustsa'''<br /> |'''hustindsa'''<br /> |'''huzillasa'''<br /> |'''huzillandsa'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsa'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsa'''<br /> |'''ihussejisa'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsa'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussimis'''<br /> |'''hussindmis'''<br /> |'''ahsejnmis'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindmis'''<br /> |'''hustmis'''<br /> |'''hustindmis'''<br /> |'''huzillamis'''<br /> |'''huzillandmis'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃmis'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindmis'''<br /> |'''ihussejimis'''<br /> |'''ihussejindmis'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussijes'''<br /> |'''hussindjes'''<br /> |'''ahsejnjes'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindjes'''<br /> |'''hustjes'''<br /> |'''hustindjes'''<br /> |'''huzillajes'''<br /> |'''huzillandjes'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃjes'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindjes'''<br /> |'''ihussejijes'''<br /> |'''ihussejindjes'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussisɔn'''<br /> |'''hussindsɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsɔn'''<br /> |'''hustsɔn'''<br /> |'''hustindsɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillasɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillandsɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejisɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiips'''<br /> |'''hussindips'''<br /> |'''ahsejnips'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindips'''<br /> |'''hustips'''<br /> |'''hustindips'''<br /> |'''huzillaips'''<br /> |'''huzillandips'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃips'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindips'''<br /> |'''ihussejiips'''<br /> |'''ihussejindips'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussisɛw'''<br /> |'''hussindsɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsɛw'''<br /> |'''hustsɛw'''<br /> |'''hustindsɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillasɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillandsɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejisɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Indefinite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Progressive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Definite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Remote Future<br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussios'''<br /> |'''hussindos'''<br /> |'''ahsejnos'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindos'''<br /> |'''hustos'''<br /> |'''hustindos'''<br /> |'''huzillaos'''<br /> |'''huzillandos'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃos'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindos'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussiom'''<br /> |'''hussindom'''<br /> |'''ahsejnom'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindom'''<br /> |'''hustom'''<br /> |'''hustindom'''<br /> |'''huzillaom'''<br /> |'''huzillandom'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃom'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindom'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussioj'''<br /> |'''hussindoj'''<br /> |'''ahsejnoj'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindoj'''<br /> |'''hustoj'''<br /> |'''hustindoj'''<br /> |'''huzillaoj'''<br /> |'''huzillandoj'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃoj'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindoj'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussion'''<br /> |'''hussindon'''<br /> |'''ahsejnon'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindon'''<br /> |'''huston'''<br /> |'''hustindon'''<br /> |'''huzillaon'''<br /> |'''huzillandon'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃon'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindon'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiob'''<br /> |'''hussindob'''<br /> |'''ahsejnob'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindob'''<br /> |'''hustob'''<br /> |'''hustindob'''<br /> |'''huzillaob'''<br /> |'''huzillandob'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃob'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindob'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussiow'''<br /> |'''hussindow'''<br /> |'''ahsejnow'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindow'''<br /> |'''hustow'''<br /> |'''hustindow'''<br /> |'''huzillaow'''<br /> |'''huzillandow'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃow'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindow'''<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Incorporation ===<br /> Besides complementing a verb with a noun phrase in the accusative (or some other) case, complements may be incorporated in the verb. This resource is particularly common with more frequent verb + complement combinations. Common verbs, especially indicating more fundamental actions such as &quot;eat&quot;, &quot;drink&quot;, &quot;take&quot;, &quot;speak&quot;, &quot;make&quot;, &quot;kill&quot; &amp;c. are more prone to this type of constructions, while more abstract verbs, as well as less frequently used verbs, tend to follow the more conventional verb + complement approach. <br /> <br /> When a complement is incorporated to a verb, it receives the prefix '''s-''' and is placed before the verb root. Irregularities are not uncommon. <br /> Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Regular Construction<br /> !Incorporation<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota ʃøga'''<br /> |'''sʃøgkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat meat&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota dabasa'''<br /> |'''sdabaskota'''<br /> |&quot;eat bread&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota drupala'''<br /> |'''sdrupalkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat vegetables&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota pinim'''<br /> |'''spinimkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat fruit&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''twiʃin halajna'''<br /> |'''shalantwiʃin'''<br /> |&quot;drink water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''twiʃin myndra'''<br /> |'''smyndtwiʃin'''<br /> |&quot;drink alcoholic beverage&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys menira'''<br /> |'''smeniraldesyys'''<br /> |&quot;take care of a child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys apsala'''<br /> |'''sapsaldesyys'''<br /> |&quot;take care of everything&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi tuglaa'''<br /> |'''stuglussi'''<br /> |&quot;hear a noise&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka pœrakʃa'''<br /> |'''spœrakʃaka'''<br /> |&quot;hunt a beast&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak tilmara'''<br /> |'''stilmatrak'''<br /> |&quot;make a mistake&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> =Word Formation=<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> !Examples<br /> |-<br /> |'''-(j)ɛv'''<br /> |agent, doer, -er<br /> |'''ballast''' &quot;to study&quot; ⇒ '''ballastɛv''' &quot;student&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''pɾujn''' &quot;to paint&quot; ⇒ '''pɾujnɛv''' &quot;painter&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''egast''' &quot;to farm&quot; ⇒ '''egastɛv''' &quot;farmer&quot; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''spœrakʃaka''' &quot;hunt a beast&quot; ⇒ '''spœrakʃakajɛv''' &quot;beast hunter&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''sʃøgkota''' &quot;eat meat&quot; ⇒ '''sʃøgkotajɛv''' &quot;meat eater, carnivore&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''smyndtwiʃin''' &quot;drink alcohol&quot; ⇒ '''smyndtwiʃinɛv''' &quot;an alcoholic, drunk, drunkard&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-mal'''<br /> |action, -tion<br /> |'''ballast''' &quot;to study&quot; ⇒ '''ballastmal''' &quot;study, dedication&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''pɾujn''' &quot;to paint&quot; ⇒ '''pɾujnmal''' &quot;(action of) painting&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''egast''' &quot;to farm&quot; ⇒ '''egastmal''' &quot;(action of) farming&quot; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''stilmatrak''' &quot;make a mistake&quot; ⇒ '''stilmatrakmal''' &quot;error, making a mistake&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''smeniraldesyys''' &quot;take care of a child&quot; ⇒ '''smeniraldesyysmal''' &quot;(the act of) taking care of a child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-ʃim'''<br /> |adjective<br /> |'''baruk''' &quot;interest&quot; ⇒ '''barukʃim''' &quot;interesting&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''tuglaa''' &quot;noise&quot; ⇒ '''tuglaaʃim''' &quot;noisy&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''stilmatrak''' &quot;make a mistake&quot; ⇒ '''stilmatrakʃim''' &quot;prone to making mistakes&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''sdrupalkota''' &quot;eat vegetables&quot; ⇒ '''sdrupalkotaʃim''', '''sdrupalkotʃim''' &quot;vegetable-eating (adj.)&quot;<br /> &lt;!---<br /> |-<br /> |'''-'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-''' &quot;&quot; ⇒ '''-''' &quot;&quot;<br /> '''-''' &quot;&quot; ⇒ '''-''' &quot;&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-''' &quot;&quot; ⇒ '''-''' &quot;&quot;<br /> '''-''' &quot;&quot; ⇒ '''-''' &quot;&quot;<br /> --&gt;<br /> |}</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Conlangs/Dahur&diff=5387 Conlangs/Dahur 2026-10-16T21:57:26Z <p>Panglossa: /* Word Formation */</p> <hr /> <div>{{DISPLAYTITLE:Dahur}}<br /> {{RightTOC}}<br /> =Phonology=<br /> <br /> ==Vowels==<br /> <br /> Dahur vowels are usually short. Double vowels (ex.: aa, ee &amp;c.) may happen, but they are considered as simple vowel sequences.<br /> <br /> The following vowels qualities are distinguished: <br /> <br /> '''a''' '''e''' '''ɛ''' '''i''' '''o''' '''ɔ''' '''ø''' '''œ''' '''u''' '''y'''<br /> <br /> The diagram below shows the 10 vowels of Dahur.<br /> <br /> [[File:dahurvowels.png|link=]]<br /> <br /> In practice, the vowel /a/ may actually vary between /a/, /ä/ and /ɑ/.<br /> <br /> Merging of /ø/ and /œ/ is fairly common, especially in more informal contexts, as these two vowels mostly don't occur as minimal pair (except in a couple cases).<br /> <br /> ==Consonants==<br /> <br /> Dahur consonants are as follows: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;border-width:0px&quot;|<br /> !Bilabial<br /> !Labiodental<br /> !Alveolar<br /> !Postalveolar<br /> !Palatal<br /> !Velar<br /> !Glottal<br /> |-<br /> !Nasal<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''m'''<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''n'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Plosive<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''p''' '''b'''<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''t''' '''d'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''k''' '''g'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Sibilant fricative<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''s''' '''z'''<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''ʃ''' '''ʒ''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Non-sibilant fricative<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''f''' '''v''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''h'''<br /> |-<br /> !Approximant<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''j'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Tap/Flap/Trill<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''ɾ''' '''r''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Lateral Approx.<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''l'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The rhotic consonant ('''r''') is in free variation and may be realised either as a tap, a flap or a trill. The trill pronunciation (/r/) is more common at the beginning of a syllable, and even more so at the beginning of a word. The tap/flap pronunciation (/ɾ/) is more common in consonant clusters, especially after a plosive. <br /> <br /> In Dahur phonology, the combinations '''tr''' and '''kʃ''' count as single, independent consonants.<br /> <br /> ==Phonotactics==<br /> A syllable in Dahur must contain one vowel, which may be preceded and/or followed by any number of consonants. In practice, consonant clusters don't usually go beyond four consonants. For that account, '''kʃ''' and '''tɾ''' are always considered as single consonants. <br /> <br /> All consonant sequences are possible. However, in practice, some consonant combinations (ex. '''-hm-''', '''-tɾkʃ-''' &amp;c.) are rare.<br /> <br /> Some studies consider the existence of a glottal stop when a proper consonant is absent. This view is reflected in the writing, which has a special sign for the glottal stop / lack of a consonant. The last consonant of a syllable can be doubled. <br /> <br /> Examples of valid syllables: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''a'''<br /> | '''tɛ'''<br /> | '''en'''<br /> | '''wi'''<br /> | '''koj'''<br /> | '''gjɔ'''<br /> | '''pɾujn'''<br /> | '''kʃtɾa'''<br /> | '''fʃtlœmbz'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Stress==<br /> In the standard pronunciation, words are stressed on the next-to-last syllable. However, if the last syllable contains the consonant /tɾ/, it will be stressed.<br /> <br /> Ex.:<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''&lt;u&gt;ka&lt;/u&gt;nar''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/ˈka.nar/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''os&lt;u&gt;trøn&lt;/u&gt;dɛl''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/os.ˈtɾøn.dɛl/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''&lt;u&gt;tef&lt;/u&gt;ʃiv''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/ˈtef.ʃiv/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''da&lt;u&gt;sutɾ&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/daˈsutɾ/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''maʃkin&lt;u&gt;tɾod&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/maʃ.kinˈtɾod/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Doubled vowels in the last syllable may sound as a long, stressed vowel; however, they are actually two separate vowels, each one in a different syllable, with stress falling on the first one (or on the last, in case that syllable contains the consonant '''tr'''). It is not uncommon to hear an epenthetic '''h''', '''j''' or '''w''' between the two vowels.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kaj&lt;u&gt;na&lt;/u&gt;ar''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/kaj.ˈna.ar/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/kaj.ˈna.har/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> | '''pakisa&lt;u&gt;atr&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/pa.ki.sa.ˈatr/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/pa.ki.sa.ˈhatr/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> | '''tøndel&lt;u&gt;li&lt;/u&gt;in''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.in/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.jin/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.hin/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''talde&lt;u&gt;sy&lt;/u&gt;ys''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tal.de.ˈsy.ys/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tal.de.ˈsy.hys/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =Writing=<br /> <br /> [[Dahur script]] consists in an alphasyllabary consisting in separate letters indicating consonants, a combination of separate letters and diacritics to indicate vowels, as well as certain special letters for individual syllables.<br /> <br /> =Morphology=<br /> <br /> Dahur is a highly flexional language, with a strong presence of irregular forms.<br /> <br /> Nouns inflect for number, which is basically singular and plural, but there are also occurrences of dual (for things normally occurring in pairs) and singulative (for individual items of things usually found collectively). <br /> <br /> Nouns also inflect for case, usually: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, locative, instrumental, ergative and ablative. Instances of partitive and vocative are also found. The case called ergative is used basically for the agent of the passive voice.<br /> <br /> Adjectives show no agreement to nouns, and inflect for degree (comparatives of superiority, equality, inferiority; relative and absolute superlative).<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Nouns==<br /> <br /> <br /> === Class ===<br /> <br /> Dahurian nouns are divided in five classes, which can be compared to Latin or Greek declensions, as they consist in different inflection patterns, but may also be seen as a form of gender, as class is usually (but not always necessarily) related to the meaning of a noun. <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class 1<br /> |Living beings<br /> |-<br /> !Class 2<br /> |General objects<br /> |-<br /> !Class 3<br /> |Natural elements; insects<br /> |-<br /> !Class 4<br /> |Parts of human body; clothing<br /> |-<br /> !Class 5<br /> |Abstract nouns; traditional imaginary beings<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There are no morphological indications related to noun classes in the nominative singular. The differences appear along the inflection of nouns.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Number ===<br /> Nouns in Dahur have a singular and a plural. The plural ending varies according to noun class and to case. There is also a dual number, which is valid only for nouns normally occurring in pairs. Mass or collective nouns have a singulative inflection, but this is not very systematically indicated.<br /> <br /> <br /> So, for example:<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> !Dual<br /> !Singulative<br /> |-<br /> |class 1<br /> |'''grats'''<br /> &quot;boy&quot;<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> &quot;boys&quot;<br /> | -<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 2<br /> |'''kɛʃev'''<br /> &quot;hammer&quot;<br /> |'''kɛʃevlin'''<br /> &quot;hammers&quot;<br /> |'''kɛʃevs'''<br /> &quot;pair of hammers&quot; (traditionally used by blacksmiths)<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 3<br /> |'''halajn'''<br /> &quot;water&quot;<br /> |'''halejnn'''<br /> &quot;waters&quot; (i.e. in a flood)<br /> |'''halajns'''<br /> &quot;The Two Waters&quot; (the river Okanuma and the lake Kassanjas)<br /> |'''halajny'''<br /> &quot;a drop of water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |class 4<br /> |'''kanar'''<br /> &quot;eye&quot;<br /> |'''kanarni'''<br /> &quot;many eyes&quot; (mostly figuratively)<br /> |'''kanaris'''<br /> &quot;(two/both) eyes&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 4<br /> |'''kʃalim'''<br /> &quot;hair&quot;<br /> |'''kʃalimni'''<br /> &quot;(types of) hair&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |'''kʃalimy'''<br /> &quot;a (single) hair&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |class 5<br /> |'''astrønɛl'''<br /> &quot;idea&quot;<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> &quot;ideas&quot;<br /> |'''astrønɛls'''<br /> &quot;a couple ideas&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The plural in classes 1, 2 and 5 is usually regular, obtained with the respective suffixes ('''-en''', '''-lin''', '''-jan'''). <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 1<br /> |'''katlaj'''<br /> &quot;girlfriend&quot;<br /> |'''katlajen'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''dukʃatr'''<br /> &quot;boss&quot;<br /> |'''dukʃatren'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''egastɛv'''<br /> &quot;farmer&quot;<br /> |'''egastɛven'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 2<br /> |'''takoj'''<br /> &quot;pin&quot;<br /> |'''takojlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''uhpsan'''<br /> &quot;paper&quot;<br /> |'''uhpsanlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''dasutr'''<br /> &quot;document, file&quot;<br /> |'''dasutrlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 5<br /> |'''pɛktegal'''<br /> &quot;angel&quot;<br /> |'''pɛktegaljan'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ostrøndɛl'''<br /> &quot;interruption&quot;<br /> |'''ostrøndɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''piktaraʃ'''<br /> &quot;problem&quot;<br /> |'''piktaraʃjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In classes 3 and 4, besides the suffixes ('''-n''', '''-ni'''), most nouns suffer some sort of mutation, usually affecting only one vowel but non uncommonly consisting of more significative changes.<br /> <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 3<br /> |'''pakpaki'''<br /> &quot;louse&quot;<br /> |'''pakpɛkin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''pahalis'''<br /> &quot;leaf&quot;<br /> |'''pahaljen'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''tʃeptal'''<br /> &quot;cloud&quot;<br /> |'''tʃapatlin''', '''tʃaptlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 4<br /> |'''kraus'''<br /> &quot;ear&quot;<br /> |'''krojsni'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ɛmblew'''<br /> &quot;hat&quot;<br /> |'''ɛmbalni'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''krikter'''<br /> &quot;helmet&quot;<br /> |'''kruktni'''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Case ===<br /> Dahur nouns inflect for the following cases: <br /> * '''nominative''' (subject, predicative)<br /> * '''accusative''' (direct object, motion towards)<br /> * '''dative''' (indirect object)<br /> * '''genitive''' (possession, partitive, origin)<br /> * '''locative''' (location, placement)<br /> * '''instrumental''' (instrument, means, company)<br /> * '''ablative''' (adverbial)<br /> * '''ergative''' (agent of the passive voice)<br /> <br /> All cases except the nominative and the ergative can be used with prepositions.<br /> <br /> Certain nouns, mostly nouns indicating human beings, also show a vocative form, mostly formed with the ending '''-e''', but usually irregular. <br /> <br /> Certain nouns, for example nouns indicating mass or food, show a partitive case, usually formed with the ending '''-(i)t'''. <br /> <br /> <br /> === Inflection ===<br /> <br /> Noun declension in Dahur is quite regular, in terms of case and the less usual numbers, viz. the dual and the singulative.<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 1<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 2<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 3<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 4<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 5<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''-'''<br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-en'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-lin'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-n'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-is'''<br /> |'''-ni'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-an'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-lajn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-an'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-jas'''<br /> |'''-nja'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-un'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-lun'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-wan'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-ujs'''<br /> |'''-nu'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-ujn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''-ak'''<br /> |'''-ask'''<br /> |'''-ken'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ik'''<br /> |'''-isk'''<br /> |'''-link'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-aʃ'''<br /> |'''-ʃas'''<br /> |'''-ʃan'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-iʃ'''<br /> |'''-siʃ'''<br /> |'''-niʃ'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ik'''<br /> |'''-isk'''<br /> |'''-jank'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-emb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-limb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-emb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-bis'''<br /> |'''-nibb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-jamb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-nom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-lom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-nom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-joms'''<br /> |'''-njom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-njom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-nɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-lɛnv''', '''-lɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-nɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-jɛfs'''<br /> |'''-njɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-njɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-løtr'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-sjøtr'''<br /> |'''-trøjn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøjn'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> &lt;!---<br /> * The '''nominative''' case is the basic form of nouns.<br /> * The '''accusative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-a'''. <br /> * The '''dative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-si'''.<br /> * The '''genitive''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ak''' for animate intelligent beings, '''-iʃ''' for animals, '''-is''' for concrete objects and '''-ɔn''' for abstract things.<br /> * The '''locative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-us'''. With animate nouns, the locative can mean &quot;on&quot;, or &quot;with&quot;, as in &quot;carrying with&quot;. <br /> * The '''instrumental''' case is indicated by the enging '''-em''' for animate intelligent beings, '''-om''' for animals, '''-um''' for things.<br /> * The '''ergative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-øtr'''. <br /> * The '''ablative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ɛv'''. <br /> --&gt;<br /> <br /> When an ending starting with a vowel is applied, a final '''-i''' becomes '''-j-''', and a final '''-u''' becomes '''-w-'''; otherwise, an '''-h-''' is added. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''dula''' &quot;babysitter&quot;, '''dulahen''' &quot;babysitters&quot;<br /> * '''agdari''' &quot;prisoner&quot;, '''agdarjen''' &quot;prisoners&quot;<br /> * '''pakpaki''' &quot;louse&quot;, '''pakpakja''' &quot;louse (accus.)&quot;, '''pakpakjaʃ''' &quot;of a louse&quot;, '''pakpakjom''' &quot;by a louse&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> In the following tables, you have some examples of nouns of the various classes, fully inflected for number and case.<br /> <br /> * Class 1: '''grats''' &quot;boy&quot; <br /> * Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' &quot;hammer&quot; <br /> * Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' &quot;cloud&quot; <br /> * Class 4: '''kraus''' &quot;ear&quot; <br /> * Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' &quot;idea&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 1: '''grats''' &quot;boy&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''grats'''<br /> |'''gratss'''<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''gratsa'''<br /> |'''gratsas'''<br /> |'''gratsan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''gratsu'''<br /> |'''gratsus'''<br /> |'''gratsun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''gratsak'''<br /> |'''gratsask'''<br /> |'''gratsken'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''gratsebb'''<br /> |'''gratseps'''<br /> |'''gratsemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''gratsom'''<br /> |'''gratsoms'''<br /> |'''gratsnom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''gratsɛv'''<br /> |'''gratsɛfs'''<br /> |'''gratsnɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''gratsøtr'''<br /> |'''gratssøtr'''<br /> |'''gratsetrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Vocative<br /> |'''gratse'''<br /> |'''gratses'''<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' &quot;hammer&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''kɛʃev'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevs'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlin'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''kɛʃeva'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevas'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlajn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''kɛʃevu'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevus'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''kɛʃevik'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevisk'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlink'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''kɛʃevebb'''<br /> |'''kɛʃeveps'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlimb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''kɛʃevom'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevoms'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''kɛʃevɛv'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevɛfs'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlɛnv''', '''kɛʃevlɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''kɛʃevøtr'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevsøtr'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevløtr'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' &quot;cloud&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''tʃeptal'''<br /> |'''tʃeptals'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlin'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''tʃeptala'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalas'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlijan''', '''tʃaptljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''tʃeptalu'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalus'''<br /> |'''tʃaptliwan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''tʃeptalaʃ'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalʃas'''<br /> |'''tʃaptliʃan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''tʃeptalebb'''<br /> |'''tʃeptaleps'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlijemb''', '''tʃaptljemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''tʃeptalom'''<br /> |'''tʃeptaloms'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlinom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''tʃeptalɛv'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalɛfs'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlinɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''tʃeptaløtr'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalsøtr'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlitrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''tʃeptalt'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalts'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlint'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 4: '''kraus''' &quot;ear&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''kraus'''<br /> |'''krausis'''<br /> |'''krojsni'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''krausa'''<br /> |'''krausjas'''<br /> |'''krojsnja'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''krausu'''<br /> |'''krausujs'''<br /> |'''krojsnu'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''krausiʃ'''<br /> |'''kraussiʃ'''<br /> |'''krojsniʃ'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''krausebb'''<br /> |'''krauseps'''<br /> |'''krojsnibb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''krausom'''<br /> |'''krausoms'''<br /> |'''krojsnjom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''krausɛv'''<br /> |'''krausɛfs'''<br /> |'''krojsnjɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''krausøtr'''<br /> |'''krausjøtr'''<br /> |'''krojstrøjn'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' &quot;idea&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''astrønɛls'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''astrønɛla'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlas'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''astrønɛlu'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlus'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlujn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''astrønɛlik'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlisk'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljank'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''astrønɛlebb'''<br /> |'''astrønɛleps'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljamb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''astrønɛlom'''<br /> |'''astrønɛloms'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlnjom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''astrønɛlɛv'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlɛfs'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlnjɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''astrønɛløtr'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlsøtr'''<br /> |'''astrønɛltrøjn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''astrønɛlt'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlts'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljant'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Articles ==<br /> <br /> === Definite Article === <br /> <br /> The definite article inflects for case and number, and is quite irregular. <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> !Singulative <br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''tru'''<br /> |'''gas'''<br /> |'''tann'''<br /> |'''try'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''na'''<br /> |'''ga'''<br /> |'''ta'''<br /> |'''ny'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''kʃu'''<br /> |'''gu'''<br /> |'''tun'''<br /> |'''kʃu'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''kis'''<br /> |'''gak'''<br /> |'''tak'''<br /> |'''kis'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''debb'''<br /> |'''gebb'''<br /> |'''tebb'''<br /> |'''debb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''trom'''<br /> |'''gom'''<br /> |'''tom'''<br /> |'''trom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative <br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |'''gɛv'''<br /> |'''tɛv'''<br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''trø'''<br /> |'''gøtr'''<br /> |'''tøtr'''<br /> |'''trø'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Indefinite Article === <br /> <br /> Dahur has no proper indefinite article. <br /> <br /> If it's really necessary to mark a noun phrase as indefinite, an indefinite pronoun may be used. The most common is '''lum''' (invariable), meaning &quot;some&quot;, &quot;a certain&quot; &amp;c.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Prepositions ==<br /> <br /> Prepositions in Dahur require the noun in one of the following cases: <br /> <br /> * accusative<br /> * dative<br /> * genitive<br /> * ablative<br /> * instrumental<br /> * locative<br /> <br /> The nominative and the ergative are '''never''' used with prepositions. <br /> <br /> In the table below you have the most common Dahur prepositions: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Preposition<br /> !Case<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''dun'''<br /> |''locative'', ''accusative of movement''<br /> |inside<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''yin'''<br /> |''dative''<br /> |for, in behalf of<br /> |-<br /> |''accusative''<br /> |towards<br /> |-<br /> |'''ari''', '''ar'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |from, out of<br /> |-<br /> |'''yuʃ'''<br /> |''genitive'', ''ablative''<br /> |because of<br /> |-<br /> |'''vøj'''<br /> |''locative''<br /> |through<br /> |-<br /> |'''syn'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |near<br /> |-<br /> |'''kʃe'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |since, ago<br /> |-<br /> |'''pɛn'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |besides, next to<br /> |-<br /> |'''lujg'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |in front of<br /> |-<br /> |'''mœh'''<br /> |''ablative''<br /> |without<br /> |-<br /> |'''sto'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |on, on top of<br /> |-<br /> |'''krɔj'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |under<br /> |-<br /> |'''tjɛs'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |before (time)<br /> |-<br /> |'''gwaj'''<br /> |''accusative''<br /> |after (time)<br /> |-<br /> |'''fyj'''<br /> |''ablative''<br /> |during<br /> |-<br /> |'''vlen'''<br /> |''instrumental''<br /> |despite<br /> |-<br /> |'''uhk'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |except<br /> |-<br /> |'''uzd'''<br /> |''dative''<br /> |instead of<br /> |-<br /> |'''blas'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |behind<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> * '''yin na hedana''' &quot;towards the house&quot;<br /> * '''dun na hedana''' &quot;into the house&quot;<br /> * '''ar kis hedanik''' &quot;from the house&quot;, &quot;out of the house&quot;<br /> * '''syn debb hedanebb''' &quot;near the house&quot;<br /> * '''syn na hedana''' &quot;going near of the house&quot;<br /> * '''pɛn debb hedanebb''' &quot;besides the house&quot;, &quot;next to the house&quot;<br /> * '''pɛn na hedana''' &quot;going next to the house&quot;<br /> * '''lujg debb hedanebb''' &quot;in front to the house&quot;<br /> * '''lujg na hedana''' &quot;going to the front of the house&quot;<br /> * '''mœh dɛv hedanɛv''' &quot;without the house&quot;<br /> * '''sto debb hedanebb''' &quot;on top of the house&quot;<br /> * '''sto na hedana''' &quot;going onto (the top of) the house&quot;<br /> * '''krɔj debb hedanebb''' &quot;under the house&quot;<br /> * '''uzd kʃu hedanu''' &quot;instead of the house&quot;<br /> * '''blas debb hedanebb''' &quot;behind the house&quot;<br /> * '''blas na hedana''' &quot;going behind the house&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> == Adjectives ==<br /> <br /> === Attributive Adjectives ===<br /> Attributive adjectives in Dahur are invariable and come before the noun. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''fɛren grats''' &quot;a smart boy&quot;<br /> * '''duʃ halajn''' &quot;clean water&quot;<br /> * '''selak kanaris''' &quot;pretty eyes&quot;<br /> <br /> A few attributes may be expressed by affixes to the noun, instead of the separate adjective. The most common ones are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar'''<br /> |'''-os''' <br /> (usually deleting the last vowel of the original noun)<br /> |&quot;big&quot;, &quot;large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr'''<br /> |'''-in-''' <br /> (before the last vowel of the or. noun)<br /> |&quot;small&quot;, &quot;little&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani'''<br /> |'''-(t)ta-''' <br /> (before the second vowel of the or. noun)<br /> |&quot;good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''<br /> |'''-aar'''<br /> |&quot;bad&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !With Adjective<br /> !With Affixed Form<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''piktarʃos''' <br /> |&quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''piktarinaʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a little problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''attastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a good idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlaar'''<br /> |&quot;a bad idea&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Certain adjectives have a special, shortened form, which is prefixed to nouns when used attributively. <br /> The most common ones are: <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar'''<br /> |'''nah-''' <br /> |&quot;big&quot;, &quot;large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr'''<br /> |'''ki-''' <br /> (doubles the initial consonant of the noun)<br /> |&quot;small&quot;, &quot;little&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani'''<br /> |'''suw-''' ('''suww-''' before vowels)<br /> |&quot;good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''<br /> |'''dag-''' ('''dagg-''' before vowels)<br /> |&quot;bad&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin'''<br /> |'''sin-''' <br /> |&quot;new&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ'''<br /> |'''dom-''' <br /> |&quot;old&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''mahhalis'''<br /> |'''mah-''' <br /> |&quot;ancient&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''', '''makʃølin'''<br /> |'''møkʃ-''' <br /> |&quot;important&quot;, &quot;great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan'''<br /> |'''tos-''', '''tan-''' <br /> |&quot;beautiful&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki'''<br /> |'''killi-''' <br /> |&quot;false&quot;, &quot;fake&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !With Adjective<br /> !With Prefix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''nahpiktaraʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''kippiktaraʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a small problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''suwwastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a good idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''daggastrønɛl'''<br /> |&quot;a bad idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin dasutr'''<br /> |'''sindasutr''' <br /> |&quot;a new document&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ hedan'''<br /> |'''domhedan''' <br /> |&quot;an old house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''mahhalis kataʃtevan'''<br /> |'''mahkataʃtevan''' <br /> |&quot;an ancient civilization&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen dasutr''', '''makʃølin dasutr'''<br /> |'''møkʃdasutr''' <br /> |&quot;an important document&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen astrønɛl''', '''makʃølin astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''møkʃastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a great idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan dummal'''<br /> |'''tosdummal''', '''tandummal''' <br /> |&quot;a beautiful song&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki bɔrakʃ'''<br /> |'''killibɔrakʃ''' <br /> |&quot;false news&quot;, &quot;fake news&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Predicative Adjectives ===<br /> <br /> An adjective used in predicative function is invariable. Only the full forms of adjectives can be used predicatively. <br /> <br /> Usually a linking verb is employed. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru astrønɛl laje makʃølen.''' || The idea is great.<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru grats alanje befitra.''' || The boy is tired.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is also the possibility of turning adjectives into verbs. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru astrønɛl makʃølnaje.''' || The idea is great.<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru grats abefitranje.''' || The boy is tired.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The most common way to make an adjective into a verb, implying the idea of &quot;be&quot;, is the suffix '''-a-''', which may cause some change in the last syllable of the original adjective. If the adjective already ends in '''-a''', there is no change. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''' <br /> &quot;great&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølna''' <br /> &quot;be great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;be tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani''' <br /> &quot;good&quot;<br /> |'''suwanja''' <br /> &quot;be good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''' <br /> &quot;bad&quot;<br /> |'''daggusa''' <br /> &quot;be bad&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin''' <br /> &quot;new&quot;<br /> |'''sulna''', '''sinna''' <br /> &quot;be new&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ''' <br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dɛtra''' <br /> &quot;be old&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan''' <br /> &quot;beautiful&quot;<br /> |'''tossana''', '''tosna''' <br /> &quot;be beautiful&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''trapter''' <br /> &quot;unique&quot;<br /> |'''traptra''' <br /> &quot;be unique&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃɔtma''' <br /> &quot;sure&quot;, &quot;certain&quot;<br /> |'''ʃɔtama''' <br /> &quot;be sure&quot;, &quot;be certain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kanikli''' <br /> &quot;appropriate&quot;<br /> |'''kankilja''' <br /> &quot;be appropriate&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tubbar''' <br /> &quot;white&quot;<br /> |'''tubabra''' <br /> &quot;be white&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kindis''' <br /> &quot;clear&quot;<br /> |'''kinitsa''' <br /> &quot;be clear&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''turu'''<br /> &quot;wrong&quot;<br /> |'''turva''', '''terva'''<br /> &quot;be wrong&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''divlaas'''<br /> &quot;sick, ill&quot;<br /> |'''dulaasa'''<br /> &quot;be sick, be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tadʒon'''<br /> &quot;pleased&quot;<br /> |'''todʒna'''<br /> &quot;be pleased&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''eskataʃi'''<br /> &quot;acquainted&quot;<br /> |'''eskataʃʃa''', '''eskatʃa'''<br /> &quot;be acquainted&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Another suffix is '''-(a)st(a)-''', meaning &quot;to get&quot; or &quot;to become&quot;. The first optional '''-a-''' appears when necessary, to avoid unsuitable consonant clusters, while the final '''-a''' is only used in the infinitive form of the verb - i.e., without any suffixes. There are some irregular formations.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''' <br /> &quot;great&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølnasta''' <br /> &quot;become great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitrasta''' <br /> &quot;get tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar''' <br /> &quot;big, large&quot;<br /> |'''nahasta''', '''narasta''' <br /> &quot;get big&quot;, &quot;increase&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr''' <br /> &quot;little, small&quot;<br /> |'''kitrasta''', '''katrasta''', '''kirrasta''' <br /> &quot;get smaller&quot;, &quot;decrease&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani''' <br /> &quot;good&quot;<br /> |'''suwanasta'''<br /> &quot;become good&quot;<br /> <br /> '''suwasta''', '''sawasta''', '''suwnasta''' <br /> <br /> &quot;get better&quot;, &quot;improve&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''' , '''daggussa'''<br /> &quot;bad&quot;<br /> |'''daggusasta''', '''daggussasta''' <br /> &quot;become bad&quot;<br /> <br /> '''daggasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get worse&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ'''<br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛsta'''<br /> &quot;become old&quot;<br /> <br /> '''dotrasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get older&quot;, &quot;to age&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan'''<br /> &quot;beautiful<br /> |'''tossanasta'''<br /> &quot;become beautiful&quot;<br /> <br /> '''tossasta''', '''tosnasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get prettier&quot;, &quot;beautify&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki'''<br /> &quot;false&quot;, &quot;fake&quot;<br /> |'''ablikasta'''<br /> &quot;become invalid&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''divlaas'''<br /> &quot;sick, ill&quot;<br /> |'''dulaasta'''<br /> &quot;be sick, be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''eskataʃi'''<br /> &quot;acquainted&quot;<br /> |'''eskatʃasta'''<br /> &quot;get acquainted&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> A few other suffixes perform similar tasks, with more specific meanings. These are usually quite regular. The most productive among these suffixes are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-we'''<br /> |&quot;to remain&quot;, &quot;still be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-kas'''<br /> |&quot;to seem&quot;, &quot;to appear&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-ʃyn'''<br /> |&quot;to pretend to be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-dobb(a)-'''<br /> |&quot;to cease to be&quot;, &quot;to be no longer&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-guj'''<br /> |&quot;to be a little bit&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''nøssar''' <br /> &quot;calm&quot;<br /> |'''nøssarwe''' &quot;remain calm&quot;, &quot;keep calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarkaʃ''' &quot;seem/appear calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarʃyn''' &quot;pretend to be calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssardobba''' &quot;cease to be calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarguj''' &quot;be a little calm&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ''' <br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛkaʃ''' &quot;seem/appear old&quot;<br /> <br /> '''dotrɛguj''' &quot;be a little old&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Comparative === <br /> The comparative of superiority of an adjective can be made by adding the suffix '''-ju''' to the stem. This suffix doubles a preceeding consonant, or becomes '''-jju''' when preceeded by a vowel. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''fɛrennju grats''' &quot;a smarter boy&quot;<br /> * '''duʃʃju halajn''' &quot;cleaner water&quot;<br /> * '''selakkju kanaris''' &quot;prettier eyes&quot;<br /> * '''naharrju piktaraʃ''' &quot;a bigger problem&quot;<br /> * '''kittrju piktaraʃ''' &quot;a smaller problem&quot; <br /> * '''suwanijju astrønɛl''' &quot;a better idea&quot;<br /> * '''daggussju''' / '''daggussajju astrønɛl''' &quot;a worse idea&quot;<br /> * '''dotrɛjju pɛten''' &quot;an older book&quot;<br /> <br /> Comparative adjectives may be turned into verbs regularly with the suffix '''-a''', which then becomes '''-wa'''. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølennju''' <br /> &quot;greater&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølennjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be greater&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitrajju''' <br /> &quot;more tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitrajjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be more tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwanijju''' <br /> &quot;better&quot;<br /> |'''suwanijjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be better&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulinnju''' <br /> &quot;newer&quot;<br /> |'''sulinnjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be newer&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛjju''' <br /> &quot;older&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛjjuwa'''<br /> &quot;be older&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossannju''' <br /> &quot;more beautiful&quot;<br /> |'''tossannjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be more beautiful&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The complement of a comparison, corresponding to the conjunction &quot;than&quot;, is placed in the ablative case. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''Nuv pɛten laej suwanijju tuhafɛv.''' &quot;This book is better than that one&quot;<br /> * '''Nuv pɛten suwanijjuwaej tuhafɛv.''' (idem)<br /> * '''Tru dukʃatr laej dotrɛjju dɛv egastɛvɛv.''' &quot;The boss is older than the farmer&quot;<br /> * '''Tru dukʃatr dotrɛjjuwaej dɛv egastɛvɛv.''' (idem)<br /> <br /> == Numerals ==<br /> The basic cardinal numbers are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |0 || '''kal''', '''kahtral'''<br /> |-<br /> |1 || '''mihen'''<br /> |-<br /> |2 || '''dahas'''<br /> |-<br /> |3 || '''travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |4 || '''gazen'''<br /> |-<br /> |5 || '''kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |6 || '''pinjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |7 || '''høtak'''<br /> |-<br /> |8 || '''magɛl'''<br /> |-<br /> |9 || '''donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |10 || '''zɛhɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |11 || '''zɛhɛv mihen''', '''zɛvhen'''<br /> |-<br /> |12 || '''zɛhɛv dahas''', '''zɛvdas'''<br /> |-<br /> |13 || '''zɛhɛv travis''', '''zɛvtras'''<br /> |-<br /> |14 || '''zɛhɛv gazen''', '''zɛvzen'''<br /> |-<br /> |15 || '''zɛhɛv kɛʃav''', '''zɛvkʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |16 || '''zɛhɛv pinjan''', '''zɛvpan'''<br /> |-<br /> |17 || '''zɛhɛv høtak''','''zɛvhøk'''<br /> |-<br /> |18 || '''zɛhɛv magɛl''', '''zɛvmal'''<br /> |-<br /> |19 || '''zɛhɛv donwaʒ''', '''zɛvdaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |20 || '''dahassɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |30 || '''travissɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |40 || '''gazennɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |50 || '''kɛʃavvɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |60 || '''pinjannɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |70 || '''høtakkɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |80 || '''magɛllɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |90 || '''donwaʒʒɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |100 || '''lakin'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,000 || '''tatrimi'''<br /> |-<br /> |10,000 || '''zɛhɛv tatrimi'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Numbers are composed by joining the base units above, from bigger to lower. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |23 || '''dahassɛv travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |45 || '''gazennɛv kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |67 || '''pinjannɛv høtak'''<br /> |-<br /> |89 || '''magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |123 || '''lakin dahassɛv travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |456 || '''gazen lakin kɛʃavvɛv pinjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |789 || '''høtak lakin magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,234 || '''tatrimi dahas lakin travissɛv gazen'''<br /> |-<br /> |5,678 || '''kɛʃav tatrimi pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl'''<br /> |-<br /> |12,345 || '''zɛvdas tatrimi travis lakin gazennɛv kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |678,910 || '''pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl tatrimi donwaʒ lakin zɛhɛv'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Ordinal numbers are created with the suffix '''-iki'''. Ex.: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |1st || '''miheniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |2nd || '''dahasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |3rd || '''travisiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |4th || '''gazeniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |5th || '''kɛʃaviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |6th || '''pinjaniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |7th || '''høtakiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |8th || '''magɛliki'''<br /> |-<br /> |9th || '''donwaʒiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |10th || '''zɛhɛviki''', '''zɛhviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |11th || '''zɛvheniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |12th || '''zɛvdasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |13th || '''zɛvtrasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |14th || '''zɛvzeniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |15th || '''zɛvkʃaviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |16th || '''zɛvpaniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |17th || '''zɛvhøkiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |18th || '''zɛvmaliki'''<br /> |-<br /> |19th || '''zɛvdaʒiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |20th || '''dahassɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |30th || '''travissɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |40th || '''gazennɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |50th || '''kɛʃavvɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |60th || '''pinjannɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |70th || '''høtakkɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |80th || '''magɛllɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |90th || '''donwaʒʒɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |100th || '''lakiniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,000th || '''tatrimiiki'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Pronouns ==<br /> <br /> === Personal Pronouns ===<br /> Personal Pronouns in Dahur indicate person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and number (singular, dual, plural).<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|1st Person<br /> |'''dɛ''' &quot;I&quot; , &quot;me&quot;<br /> |'''ʃes''' &quot;we both&quot;<br /> |'''ʃɛn''' &quot;we&quot;, &quot;us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''dɛ'''<br /> |'''ʃes'''<br /> |'''ʃɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''dɛa''', '''da'''<br /> |'''ʃeas''', '''ʃas'''<br /> |'''ʃan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''dɛw''', '''du'''<br /> |'''ʃeus''', '''ʃews''', '''ʃus'''<br /> |'''ʃɛun''', '''ʃɛwn''', '''ʃun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''dɛk'''<br /> |'''ʃesk'''<br /> |'''ʃɛkɛn''', '''ʃkɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''dɛbb'''<br /> |'''ʃeps'''<br /> |'''ʃɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''dɛm'''<br /> |'''ʃems'''<br /> |'''ʃɛom''', '''ʃom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |'''ʃɛfs'''<br /> |'''ʃɛɛv''', '''ʃɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''dɛjøtr''', '''dɛtr'''<br /> |'''ʃesøtr'''<br /> |'''ʃɛtrøn''', '''ʃtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''dɛt'''<br /> |'''ʃets'''<br /> |'''ʃɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|2nd Person<br /> |'''hej''' &quot;you (sg.), thou&quot;<br /> |'''kwes''' &quot;you both&quot;<br /> |'''kwɛn''' &quot;you (pl.)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''hej'''<br /> |'''kwes'''<br /> |'''kwɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''heja''', '''ja'''<br /> |'''kweas''', '''kwas'''<br /> |'''kwɛan''', '''kwan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''heju''', '''ju'''<br /> |'''kweus'''<br /> |'''kwɛun''', '''kun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''heik''', '''hejik'''<br /> |'''kwesk'''<br /> |'''kwɛnek''', '''kwɛnk'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''heibb''', '''hibb'''<br /> |'''kweps'''<br /> |'''kwɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''heim''', '''him'''<br /> |'''kwems'''<br /> |'''kwɛom''', '''kwɛm''', '''kwom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''hejɛv''', '''jɛv'''<br /> |'''kwɛfs'''<br /> |'''kwɛɛv''', '''kwɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''hejøtr''', '''hjøtr'''<br /> |'''kwesøtr'''<br /> |'''kwɛtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Vocative<br /> |'''heje'''<br /> |'''kwejes'''<br /> |'''kwɛjɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''hɛt'''<br /> |'''kwets'''<br /> |'''kwɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|3rd Person<br /> |'''nar''' &quot;he&quot;, &quot;she&quot;, &quot;it&quot;<br /> |'''ras''' &quot;they both&quot;<br /> |'''ren''' &quot;they&quot;, &quot;them&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''nar'''<br /> |'''ras'''<br /> |'''rɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''nara''', '''ra'''<br /> |'''ras'''<br /> |'''rɛan''', '''ran'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''naru''', '''ru'''<br /> |'''raus''', '''raws''', '''rus'''<br /> |'''rɛun''', '''rɛwn''', '''run'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''narɛk''', '''rɛk'''<br /> |'''resk'''<br /> |'''rɛkɛn''', '''ɛrken'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''narebb''', '''rebb'''<br /> |'''reps'''<br /> |'''rɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''narom''', '''rom'''<br /> |'''rems'''<br /> |'''rɛnom''', '''rom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''narɛv''', '''rɛv'''<br /> |'''rɛfs'''<br /> |'''rɛɛv''', '''rɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''narøtr''', '''røtr'''<br /> |'''resøtr'''<br /> |'''rɛtrøn''', '''ɛrtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''rɛt'''<br /> |'''rets'''<br /> |'''rɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The '''genitive''' forms work as possessive pronouns. In that case, the definite article is optional. Ex.: <br /> * '''tru dɛk astrønɛl''', '''dɛk astrønɛl''' &quot;my idea&quot;<br /> * '''na heik kʃalima''', '''heik kʃalima''' &quot;your hair (accus.)&quot;<br /> * '''trom narɛk kɛʃevom''', '''narɛk kɛʃevom''' &quot;with his/her hammer (instr.)&quot;<br /> * '''tu dɛk menirun''', '''dɛk menirun''' &quot;to my children (dat.)&quot;<br /> <br /> Object pronouns usually come before the verb. The shorter, unstressed version is preferred. Ex.: <br /> * '''Ja angenus.''' &quot;I can see you (sing.).&quot;<br /> * '''Kwas angenus.''' &quot;I can see you two.&quot;<br /> * '''Kwan angenus.''' &quot;I can see you (pl.).&quot;<br /> * '''Ra angenus.''' &quot;I can see it/him/her.&quot;<br /> * '''Ras angenus.''' &quot;I can see them both.&quot;<br /> * '''Ran angenus.''' &quot;I can see them.&quot;<br /> * '''Da angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see me.&quot;<br /> * '''ʃas angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see us both.&quot;<br /> * '''ʃan angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see us.&quot;<br /> <br /> An object pronoun may also appear after the verb. In that case, the preference is for the longer, stressed versions. Ex.:<br /> * '''Angenus ja/heja.''' &quot;I can see you (sing.).&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus kweas/kwas.''' &quot;I can see you two.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus kwɛan/kwan.''' &quot;I can see you (pl.).&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus nara/ra.''' &quot;I can see it/him/her.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus ras.''' &quot;I can see them both.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus rɛan/ran.''' &quot;I can see them.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej dɛa/da.''' &quot;He/she can see me.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej ʃeas/ʃas.''' &quot;He/she can see us both.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej ʃan.''' &quot;He/she can see us.&quot;<br /> <br /> The most common case for a verb complement is the accusative. However, verbs may require different cases. Ex.: <br /> * '''Kun dagsuttoj!''' &quot;It will harm you!&quot; / &quot;It will be harmful to you!&quot; ('''dagusta''' &quot;harm, be harmful&quot; + dat.)<br /> * '''Ja/Ju darʃinɔn.''' &quot;We trust you.&quot; ('''darʃin''' &quot;trust&quot; + acc./dat.)<br /> * '''Poglattindsa narɛv/rɛv''' &quot;I didn't use it.&quot; ('''poglar''' &quot;use&quot; + abl.)<br /> * '''Ra twiʃnettmis.''' &quot;You drank it (all).&quot; / '''Rɛt twiʃnettmis.''' &quot;You drank (some of) it.&quot; '''twiʃin''' &quot;drink&quot; +acc. (whole), +part. (specific amount)<br /> <br /> === Demonstrative Pronouns ===<br /> The main demonstrative pronouns are: <br /> <br /> * '''nuv''' &quot;this, these&quot;<br /> * '''tuhaf''' &quot;that, those&quot;<br /> <br /> When accompanying a noun, they behave as adjectives and are not inflected. <br /> <br /> When used on their own, they stand as nouns and are inflected according to the class of the intended noun. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''Nuv grats laej fɛrennju nuvɛv.''' &quot;This boy is smarter than this one.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> === Interrogative Pronouns ===<br /> <br /> === Indefinite Pronouns ===<br /> <br /> === Relative Pronoun ===<br /> The main relative pronoun in Dahur is '''jao''', as shown in the following table. <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''jao'''<br /> |'''jes'''<br /> |'''jen'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''jaa''', '''ja'''<br /> |'''jeas''', '''jas'''<br /> |'''jaan''', '''jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''jau''', '''jaw'''<br /> |'''jeus''', '''jews'''<br /> |'''jeun''', '''jewn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''jak'''<br /> |'''jesk'''<br /> |'''jenk'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''jaebb'''<br /> |'''jaeps'''<br /> |'''jaemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''jaom'''<br /> |'''jaoms'''<br /> |'''jaom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''jaɛv'''<br /> |'''jaɛfs'''<br /> |'''janɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''jaøtr'''<br /> |'''jasøtr'''<br /> |'''jatrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> | - <br /> |'''jets'''<br /> |'''jent'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The pronoun agrees in number with the antecedent, but its case is determined by its function in the subordinate clause. Ex.:<br /> * '''tru grats jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;the boy (nom.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''na gratsa jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;the boy (accus.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''kʃu gratsu jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;to the boy (dat.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''kis gratsak jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;of the boy (gen.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''trø gratsøtr jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;by the boy (erg.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''tann gratsen jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;the boys (nom.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''ta gratsan jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;the boys (accus.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tun gratsun jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;to the boys (dat.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tak gratsken jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr gratsetrøn jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tru grats jaa kahettsa''' &quot;the boy (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''na gratsa jaa kahettsa''' &quot;the boy (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''kʃu gratsu jaa kahettsa''' &quot;to the boy (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''kis gratsak jaa kahettsa''' &quot;of the boy (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''trø gratsøtr jaa kahettsa''' &quot;by the boy (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tann gratsen jaan kahettsa''' &quot;the boys (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''ta gratsan jaan kahettsa''' &quot;the boys (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tun gratsun jaan kahettsa''' &quot;to the boys (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tak gratsken jaan kahettsa''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr gratsetrøn jaan kahettsa''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> <br /> Besides this pronoun, relative clauses may also be formed with participles. <br /> <br /> Ex.:<br /> <br /> * '''tru ateʃfanur grats''' &quot;the boy (nom.) who is running away&quot; <br /> * '''na ateʃfanur gratsa''' &quot;the boy (accus.) who is running away&quot; <br /> * '''tak ateʃfanur gratsken''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) who are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tru dɛtr kahettek grats''', '''tru grats dɛtr kahettek''' &quot;the boy (nom.) whom I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr dɛtr kahettek gratsetrøn''', '''tøtr gratsetrøn dɛtr kahettek''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) whom I saw&quot;<br /> <br /> == Verbs ==<br /> <br /> === Finite Forms ===<br /> <br /> Verbs in Dahur have different stems indicating aspect. The conjugation uses different sets of endings to indicate tense or time. <br /> <br /> The basic verb stems are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Aspect<br /> !Meaning<br /> !Form<br /> |-<br /> |Generic<br /> |''verbal idea without a specific context, time or aspect''<br /> |the basic stem of the verb<br /> |-<br /> |Cursive (Progressive; Continuous)<br /> |''action ongoing at the moment of reference<br /> |prefix '''a-''' and suffix '''-(a)n-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Aorist<br /> |''a complete or punctual action''<br /> |suffix '''-(e)tt-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Perfect<br /> |''the result of an action that happened before the reference time''<br /> |suffix '''-(l)l(a)-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Unrealised (Future)<br /> |''action as not realised in relation to the reference time''<br /> |prefix '''u-''' and suffix '''-(u)ʃ-''' <br /> |-<br /> |Conditional<br /> |''irrealis, usually an action depending on another''<br /> |prefix '''i-''' (doubling the initial consonant) and suffix '''-i-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Stem formation is often irregular. <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Generic<br /> !Cursive<br /> !Aorist<br /> !Perfect<br /> !Unrealised<br /> !Conditional <br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmal-'''<br /> |'''akʃmalan-'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalett-'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalla-'''<br /> |'''ukaʃmaluʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkaʃmali-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''la-'''<br /> |'''alan-'''<br /> |'''latt-'''<br /> |'''lalla-'''<br /> |'''ulauʃ-'''<br /> |'''illai-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''wennin''' &quot;live&quot; <br /> |'''wennin-'''<br /> |'''awann-'''<br /> |'''wennett-'''<br /> |'''wennilla-'''<br /> |'''uwenninʃ-'''<br /> |'''iwennini-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadra-'''<br /> |'''agandran-'''<br /> |'''gadrett-'''<br /> |'''gadralla-'''<br /> |'''ugadruʃ-'''<br /> |'''iggadri-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''tefʃiv''' &quot;flee&quot;<br /> |'''tefʃiv-'''<br /> |'''ateʃfan-'''<br /> |'''tefʃivett-'''<br /> |'''tefʃivla-'''<br /> |'''utefʃivuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittefʃivi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maʃkintɾod''' &quot;represent&quot;<br /> |'''maʃkintɾod-'''<br /> |'''amaʃkintɾon-'''<br /> |'''maʃkintɾott-'''<br /> |'''maʃkintɾolla-'''<br /> |'''umaʃkintɾotʃ-'''<br /> |'''immaʃkintɾodi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kajnaar''' &quot;jump&quot;<br /> |'''kajnaar-'''<br /> |'''akajnaan-'''<br /> |'''kajnerett-'''<br /> |'''kajnaalla-'''<br /> |'''ukajnaaruʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkajnaari-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys''' &quot;take care of&quot;<br /> |'''taldesyys-'''<br /> |'''ataldesyyn-'''<br /> |'''taldesyyst-'''<br /> |'''taldesyyll-'''<br /> |'''utaldesyyʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittaldesyysi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kota-'''<br /> |'''ankon-'''<br /> |'''kotatt-'''<br /> |'''kekolla-'''<br /> |'''ukotuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkoti-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussi-'''<br /> |'''ahsejn-'''<br /> |'''hust-'''<br /> |'''huzilla-'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ihusseji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''ken-''', '''kena-'''<br /> |'''angen-'''<br /> |'''kahett-'''<br /> |'''kenalla-''', '''kralla-'''<br /> |'''ukunuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkeni-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''mend''' &quot;become&quot;<br /> |'''mend-'''<br /> |'''amdan-'''<br /> |'''menett-'''<br /> |'''mendla-'''<br /> |'''umenduʃ-'''<br /> |'''immendi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustaj-''', '''ustaji-'''<br /> |'''anstajn-''', '''anstajin-'''<br /> |'''ustatt-''', '''ustitt-'''<br /> |'''ustalla-''', '''ustilla-'''<br /> |'''ustajuʃ-'''<br /> |'''istaji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''maj-'''<br /> |'''amann-'''<br /> |'''menett-'''<br /> |'''mjalla-'''<br /> |'''umujuʃ-'''<br /> |'''immaji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trak-'''<br /> |'''atrakan-'''<br /> |'''tetrakett-'''<br /> |'''ketralla-'''<br /> |'''utrakʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittraggi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''pakt''' &quot;understand&quot;<br /> |'''pakt-'''<br /> |'''ampakn-'''<br /> |'''pakett-'''<br /> |'''paktalla-'''<br /> |'''upaktuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ippakti-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''durʃin''' &quot;seem, appear&quot;<br /> |'''durʃin-'''<br /> |'''adurʃan-'''<br /> |'''durʃint-'''<br /> |'''durʃilla-'''<br /> |'''udurʃinʃ-'''<br /> |'''iddurʃini-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka''' &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |'''ʃaka-'''<br /> |'''aʃkan-'''<br /> |'''ʃakkatt-'''<br /> |'''ʃakalla-'''<br /> |'''uʃakkuʃ-'''<br /> |'''iʃakki-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kʃa''' [passive voice auxiliary]<br /> |'''kʃa-'''<br /> |'''akʃan-'''<br /> |'''kʃatt-'''<br /> |'''kʃalla-'''<br /> |'''ukʃuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkʃi-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The personal endings are : <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Present<br /> !Past<br /> !Future<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-sa'''<br /> |'''-os'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''-im'''<br /> |'''-mis'''<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''-ej'''<br /> |'''-jes'''<br /> |'''-oj'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''-ɔn'''<br /> |'''-sɔn'''<br /> |'''-on'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''-ib'''<br /> |'''-ips'''<br /> |'''-ob'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''-ɛw'''<br /> |'''-sɛw'''<br /> |'''-ow'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The following combinations of stem + ending set occur: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |Present<br /> |Past<br /> |Future<br /> |-<br /> |Generic<br /> !Simple <br /> Present<br /> !Habitual<br /> Past (&quot;used to&quot;)<br /> !Indefinite<br /> Future<br /> |-<br /> |Cursive<br /> !Present<br /> Continuous<br /> !Past <br /> Continuous<br /> !Future<br /> Progressive<br /> |-<br /> |Aorist<br /> |<br /> !Simple <br /> Past (Aorist)<br /> !Definite Future<br /> (Specific, Punctual)<br /> |-<br /> |Perfect<br /> !Present <br /> Perfect<br /> !Past<br /> Perfect<br /> !Future <br /> Perfect<br /> |-<br /> |Unrealised<br /> !Near <br /> Future<br /> !Unrealised <br /> Past (&quot;would&quot;)<br /> !Future <br /> (Remote) <br /> |-<br /> |Conditional <br /> !Conditional <br /> Present<br /> !Conditional <br /> Past<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> For the imperative, the base form of the verb is used. Optionally, the particle '''a''' can be used before the verb. Ex.: <br /> * '''Kaʃmal!''' / '''A kaʃmal!''' &quot;Take!&quot;<br /> * '''Hussi!''' / '''A hussi!''' &quot;Listen!&quot;<br /> * '''Spa kajnaar!''' / '''A spa kajnaar!''' &quot;Don't jump!&quot;<br /> <br /> While the formation of aspect stems is often irregular, the combination of stem + endings is usually quite regular and predictable. The usual epenthetic phonemes occur, mostly the semivowels ('''j''' and '''w'''), when two vowels come together, but these are more an artifact of speech and aren't usually indicated in writing. Ex.: <br /> * '''kaʃmallaus''', '''kaʃmallawus''' <br /> * '''kaʃmallaim''', '''kaʃmallajim''' <br /> * '''kaʃmallaej''', '''kaʃmallajej''', '''kaʃmallahej'''<br /> * '''kaʃmallaɔn''', '''kaʃmallawɔn''' <br /> * '''iggadriips''', '''iggadrijips'''<br /> * '''iggadrius''', '''iggadrijus'''<br /> * &amp;c.<br /> <br /> ==== Negative ====<br /> <br /> The infix '''-(i)nd-''', placed before the personal endings, makes a verb negative. Ex.: <br /> * '''landus''' &quot;I am not&quot;<br /> * '''lattindsɛw''' &quot;they weren't&quot;<br /> * '''hussindoj''' &quot;he/she won't listen&quot;<br /> * '''ateʃfanindips''' &quot;you weren't running away&quot;<br /> <br /> The emphatic negative particle '''spa''' may be used before the verb, always in the negative form. Ex.: <br /> * '''spa landus''' &quot;I am most certainly not&quot;<br /> * '''spa lattindsɛw''' &quot;they definitely weren't&quot;<br /> * '''spa hussindoj''' &quot;he/she will not listen at all&quot;<br /> * '''spa ateʃfanindips''' &quot;you really weren't running away&quot;<br /> <br /> This particle '''spa''' is also used in a negative command, with the base form of the verb. In that case, it doesn't necessarily have an emphatic meaning. Ex.: <br /> * '''Spa hussi!''' / '''A spa hussi!''' &quot;Don't listen!&quot;<br /> <br /> === Nominal Forms ===<br /> <br /> ==== Infinitive ==== <br /> <br /> The Dahur verb has infinitives for the Generic, Cursive, Aorist, Perfect and Unrealised aspects. They are formed by adding the ending '''-eh''' to the corresponding stem. The prefix '''u-''' of the Unrealised aspect is optional in the infinitive. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Generic<br /> !Cursive<br /> !Aorist<br /> !Perfect<br /> !Unrealised<br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmaleh'''<br /> |'''akʃmalaneh'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaletteh'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaeh'''<br /> |'''ukaʃmaluʃeh''', '''kaʃmaluʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''laeh'''<br /> |'''alaneh'''<br /> |'''latteh'''<br /> |'''lallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)lauʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadraeh'''<br /> |'''agandraneh'''<br /> |'''gadretteh'''<br /> |'''gadrallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)gadruʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kotaeh'''<br /> |'''ankoneh'''<br /> |'''kotatteh'''<br /> |'''kekollaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)kotuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussieh'''<br /> |'''ahsejneh'''<br /> |'''husteh'''<br /> |'''huzillaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)hussuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''keneh'''<br /> |'''angeneh'''<br /> |'''kahetteh'''<br /> |'''kenallaeh''', '''krallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)kunuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustajeh'''<br /> |'''anstajneh'''<br /> |'''ustatteh''', '''ustitteh'''<br /> |'''ustallaeh''', '''ustillaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)stajuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''majeh'''<br /> |'''amanneh'''<br /> |'''menetteh'''<br /> |'''mjallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)mujuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trakeh'''<br /> |'''atrakaneh'''<br /> |'''tetraketteh'''<br /> |'''ketrallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)trakʃeh'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The infinitive may be used as a noun, but also with certain auxiliary verbs. When a participle is used as a noun, usually the definite article may be omitted. Ex.: <br /> <br /> *'''(Tru) kotaeh laej suwani.''' / '''(Tru) kotaeh suwanjaej.''' &quot;Eating is good.&quot;<br /> <br /> ==== Participle ====<br /> Participles are built by adding specific suffixes to the corresponding stems of the verb: <br /> * '''-ur''' (active participle)<br /> * '''-ek''' (passive participle)<br /> <br /> The prefix '''u-''' of the unrealised stem is dropped.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Generic<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Cursive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Aorist<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmalur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalek'''<br /> |'''akʃmalanur'''<br /> |'''akʃmalanek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalettur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalettek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaur''', '''kaʃmallur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaek''', '''kaʃmallek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaluʃur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaluʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''laur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''alanur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lattur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lallaur''', '''lallur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lauʃur'''<br /> | <br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadraur'''<br /> |'''gadraek'''<br /> |'''agandranur'''<br /> |'''agandranek'''<br /> |'''gadrettur'''<br /> |'''gadrettek'''<br /> |'''gadrallur'''<br /> |'''gadrallek'''<br /> |'''gadruʃur'''<br /> |'''gadruʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kotaur'''<br /> |'''kotaek'''<br /> |'''ankonur'''<br /> |'''ankonek'''<br /> |'''kotattur'''<br /> |'''kotattek'''<br /> |'''kekollur'''<br /> |'''kekollek'''<br /> |'''kotuʃur'''<br /> |'''kotuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussiur'''<br /> |'''hussiek'''<br /> |'''ahsejnur'''<br /> |'''ahsejnek'''<br /> |'''hustur'''<br /> |'''hustek'''<br /> |'''huzillaur'''<br /> |'''huzillaek'''<br /> |'''hussuʃur'''<br /> |'''hussuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''kenur'''<br /> |'''kenek'''<br /> |'''angenur'''<br /> |'''angenek'''<br /> |'''kahettur'''<br /> |'''kahettek'''<br /> |'''kenallur''', '''krallur'''<br /> |'''kenallek''', '''krallek'''<br /> |'''kunuʃur'''<br /> |'''kunuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustajur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''anstajnur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustattur''', '''ustittur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustallur''', '''ustillek'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustajuʃur'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''majur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''amannur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''menettur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''mjallur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''mujuʃur'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trakur'''<br /> |'''trakek'''<br /> |'''atrakanur'''<br /> |'''atrakanek'''<br /> |'''tetrakettur'''<br /> |'''tetrakettek'''<br /> |'''ketrallur'''<br /> |'''ketrallek'''<br /> |'''trakʃur'''<br /> |'''trakʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka''' &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |'''ʃakaur'''<br /> |'''ʃakaek'''<br /> |'''aʃkanur'''<br /> |'''aʃkanek'''<br /> |'''ʃakkattur'''<br /> |'''ʃakkattek'''<br /> |'''ʃakallur'''<br /> |'''ʃakallek'''<br /> |'''ʃakkuʃur'''<br /> |'''ʃakkuʃek'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The corresponding negative versions of these participles are formed regularly with the suffix '''-(i)nd-'''. Ex.:<br /> * '''landur''' &quot;not being&quot;<br /> * '''angenindur''' &quot;not seeing&quot;<br /> * '''gradrettindek''' &quot;not written&quot;<br /> * '''ketrallindur''' &quot;who/which had not done&quot;<br /> * '''aʃkanindek''' &quot;which isn't being hunted&quot;<br /> <br /> === Passive Voice ===<br /> <br /> The passive voice is built with the auxiliary '''kʃa''', conjugated regularly, followed by the base form of the verb. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''akʃanus taldesyys''' &quot;I'm being taken care of&quot;<br /> * '''akʃanindmis ken''' &quot;you were not being seen&quot;<br /> * '''kʃallaɔn kaʃmal''' &quot;we have been taken&quot;<br /> * '''kʃattsɛw kota''' &quot;they were eaten&quot;<br /> * '''ikkʃindej trak''' &quot;if it's not done&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> === Conjugation ===<br /> Next you have a few verbs, conjugated in all its forms.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|Verb '''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Present<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Continuous <br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Perfect <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Near Future <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Present <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''laus'''<br /> |'''landus'''<br /> |'''alanus'''<br /> |'''alanindus'''<br /> |'''lallaus'''<br /> |'''lallandus'''<br /> |'''ulauʃus'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindus'''<br /> |'''illaius'''<br /> |'''illaindus'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''laim'''<br /> |'''landim'''<br /> |'''alanim'''<br /> |'''alanindim'''<br /> |'''lallaim'''<br /> |'''lallandim'''<br /> |'''ulauʃim'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindim'''<br /> |'''illaiim'''<br /> |'''illaindim'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''laej'''<br /> |'''landej'''<br /> |'''alanej'''<br /> |'''alanindej'''<br /> |'''lallaej'''<br /> |'''lallandej'''<br /> |'''ulauʃej'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindej'''<br /> |'''illaiej'''<br /> |'''illaindej'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''laɔn'''<br /> |'''landɔn'''<br /> |'''alanɔn'''<br /> |'''alanindɔn'''<br /> |'''lallaɔn'''<br /> |'''lallandɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindɔn'''<br /> |'''illaiɔn'''<br /> |'''illaindɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laib'''<br /> |'''landib'''<br /> |'''alanib'''<br /> |'''alanindib'''<br /> |'''lallaib'''<br /> |'''lallandib'''<br /> |'''ulauʃib'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindib'''<br /> |'''illaiib'''<br /> |'''illaindib'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''laɛw'''<br /> |'''landɛw'''<br /> |'''alanɛw'''<br /> |'''alanindɛw'''<br /> |'''lallaɛw'''<br /> |'''lallandɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindɛw'''<br /> |'''illaiɛw'''<br /> |'''illaindɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Habitual Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Continuous <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Past <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Past <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''lasa'''<br /> |'''landsa'''<br /> |'''alansa'''<br /> |'''alanindsa'''<br /> |'''lattsa'''<br /> |'''lattindsa'''<br /> |'''lallasa'''<br /> |'''lallandsa'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsa'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsa'''<br /> |'''illaisa'''<br /> |'''illaindsa'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''lamis'''<br /> |'''landmis'''<br /> |'''alanmis'''<br /> |'''alanindmis'''<br /> |'''lattmis'''<br /> |'''lattindmis'''<br /> |'''lallamis'''<br /> |'''lallandmis'''<br /> |'''ulauʃmis'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindmis'''<br /> |'''illaimis'''<br /> |'''illaindmis'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''lajes'''<br /> |'''landjes'''<br /> |'''alanjes'''<br /> |'''alanindjes'''<br /> |'''lattjes'''<br /> |'''lattindjes'''<br /> |'''lallajes'''<br /> |'''lallandjes'''<br /> |'''ulauʃjes'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindjes'''<br /> |'''illaijes'''<br /> |'''illaindjes'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''lasɔn'''<br /> |'''landsɔn'''<br /> |'''alansɔn'''<br /> |'''alanindsɔn'''<br /> |'''lattsɔn'''<br /> |'''lattindsɔn'''<br /> |'''lallasɔn'''<br /> |'''lallandsɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsɔn'''<br /> |'''illaisɔn'''<br /> |'''illaiindsɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laips'''<br /> |'''landips'''<br /> |'''alanips'''<br /> |'''alanindips'''<br /> |'''lattips'''<br /> |'''lattindips'''<br /> |'''lallaips'''<br /> |'''lallandips'''<br /> |'''ulauʃips'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindips'''<br /> |'''illaiips'''<br /> |'''illaindips'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''lasɛw'''<br /> |'''landsɛw'''<br /> |'''alansɛw'''<br /> |'''alanindsɛw'''<br /> |'''lattsɛw'''<br /> |'''lattindsɛw'''<br /> |'''lallasɛw'''<br /> |'''lallandsɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsɛw'''<br /> |'''illaisɛw'''<br /> |'''illaindsɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Indefinite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Progressive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Definite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Remote Future<br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''laos'''<br /> |'''landos'''<br /> |'''alanos'''<br /> |'''alanindos'''<br /> |'''lattos'''<br /> |'''lattindos'''<br /> |'''lallaos'''<br /> |'''lallandos'''<br /> |'''ulauʃos'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindos'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''laom'''<br /> |'''landom'''<br /> |'''alanom'''<br /> |'''alanindom'''<br /> |'''lattom'''<br /> |'''lattindom'''<br /> |'''lallaom'''<br /> |'''lallandom'''<br /> |'''ulauʃom'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindom'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''laoj'''<br /> |'''landoj'''<br /> |'''alanoj'''<br /> |'''alanindoj'''<br /> |'''lattoj'''<br /> |'''lattindoj'''<br /> |'''lallaoj'''<br /> |'''lallandoj'''<br /> |'''ulauʃoj'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindoj'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''laon'''<br /> |'''landon'''<br /> |'''alanon'''<br /> |'''alanindon'''<br /> |'''latton'''<br /> |'''lattindon'''<br /> |'''lallaon'''<br /> |'''lallandon'''<br /> |'''ulauʃon'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindon'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laob'''<br /> |'''landob'''<br /> |'''alanob'''<br /> |'''alanindob'''<br /> |'''lattob'''<br /> |'''lattindob'''<br /> |'''lallaob'''<br /> |'''lallandob'''<br /> |'''ulauʃob'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindob'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''laow'''<br /> |'''landow'''<br /> |'''alanow'''<br /> |'''alanindow'''<br /> |'''lattow'''<br /> |'''lattindow'''<br /> |'''lallaow'''<br /> |'''lallandow'''<br /> |'''ulauʃow'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindow'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|Verb '''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Present<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Continuous <br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Perfect <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Near Future <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Present <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussius'''<br /> |'''hussindus'''<br /> |'''ahsejnus'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindus'''<br /> |'''huzillaus'''<br /> |'''huzillandus'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃus'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindus'''<br /> |'''ihussejius'''<br /> |'''ihussejindus'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussiim'''<br /> |'''hussindim'''<br /> |'''ahsejnim'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindim'''<br /> |'''huzillaim'''<br /> |'''huzillandim'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃim'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindim'''<br /> |'''ihussejiim'''<br /> |'''ihussejindim'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussije'''<br /> |'''hussindje'''<br /> |'''ahsejnje'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindje'''<br /> |'''huzillaje'''<br /> |'''huzillandje'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃje'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindje'''<br /> |'''ihussejije'''<br /> |'''ihussejindje'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussiɔn'''<br /> |'''hussindɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillaɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillandɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejiɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejindɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiib'''<br /> |'''hussindib'''<br /> |'''ahsejnib'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindib'''<br /> |'''huzillaib'''<br /> |'''huzillandib'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃib'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindib'''<br /> |'''ihussejiib'''<br /> |'''ihussejindib'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussiɛw'''<br /> |'''hussindɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillaɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillandɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejiɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejindɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Habitual Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Continuous <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Past <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Past <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussisa'''<br /> |'''hussindsa'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsa'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsa'''<br /> |'''hustsa'''<br /> |'''hustindsa'''<br /> |'''huzillasa'''<br /> |'''huzillandsa'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsa'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsa'''<br /> |'''ihussejisa'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsa'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussimis'''<br /> |'''hussindmis'''<br /> |'''ahsejnmis'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindmis'''<br /> |'''hustmis'''<br /> |'''hustindmis'''<br /> |'''huzillamis'''<br /> |'''huzillandmis'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃmis'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindmis'''<br /> |'''ihussejimis'''<br /> |'''ihussejindmis'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussijes'''<br /> |'''hussindjes'''<br /> |'''ahsejnjes'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindjes'''<br /> |'''hustjes'''<br /> |'''hustindjes'''<br /> |'''huzillajes'''<br /> |'''huzillandjes'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃjes'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindjes'''<br /> |'''ihussejijes'''<br /> |'''ihussejindjes'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussisɔn'''<br /> |'''hussindsɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsɔn'''<br /> |'''hustsɔn'''<br /> |'''hustindsɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillasɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillandsɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejisɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiips'''<br /> |'''hussindips'''<br /> |'''ahsejnips'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindips'''<br /> |'''hustips'''<br /> |'''hustindips'''<br /> |'''huzillaips'''<br /> |'''huzillandips'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃips'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindips'''<br /> |'''ihussejiips'''<br /> |'''ihussejindips'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussisɛw'''<br /> |'''hussindsɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsɛw'''<br /> |'''hustsɛw'''<br /> |'''hustindsɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillasɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillandsɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejisɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Indefinite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Progressive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Definite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Remote Future<br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussios'''<br /> |'''hussindos'''<br /> |'''ahsejnos'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindos'''<br /> |'''hustos'''<br /> |'''hustindos'''<br /> |'''huzillaos'''<br /> |'''huzillandos'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃos'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindos'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussiom'''<br /> |'''hussindom'''<br /> |'''ahsejnom'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindom'''<br /> |'''hustom'''<br /> |'''hustindom'''<br /> |'''huzillaom'''<br /> |'''huzillandom'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃom'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindom'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussioj'''<br /> |'''hussindoj'''<br /> |'''ahsejnoj'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindoj'''<br /> |'''hustoj'''<br /> |'''hustindoj'''<br /> |'''huzillaoj'''<br /> |'''huzillandoj'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃoj'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindoj'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussion'''<br /> |'''hussindon'''<br /> |'''ahsejnon'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindon'''<br /> |'''huston'''<br /> |'''hustindon'''<br /> |'''huzillaon'''<br /> |'''huzillandon'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃon'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindon'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiob'''<br /> |'''hussindob'''<br /> |'''ahsejnob'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindob'''<br /> |'''hustob'''<br /> |'''hustindob'''<br /> |'''huzillaob'''<br /> |'''huzillandob'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃob'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindob'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussiow'''<br /> |'''hussindow'''<br /> |'''ahsejnow'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindow'''<br /> |'''hustow'''<br /> |'''hustindow'''<br /> |'''huzillaow'''<br /> |'''huzillandow'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃow'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindow'''<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Incorporation ===<br /> Besides complementing a verb with a noun phrase in the accusative (or some other) case, complements may be incorporated in the verb. This resource is particularly common with more frequent verb + complement combinations. Common verbs, especially indicating more fundamental actions such as &quot;eat&quot;, &quot;drink&quot;, &quot;take&quot;, &quot;speak&quot;, &quot;make&quot;, &quot;kill&quot; &amp;c. are more prone to this type of constructions, while more abstract verbs, as well as less frequently used verbs, tend to follow the more conventional verb + complement approach. <br /> <br /> When a complement is incorporated to a verb, it receives the prefix '''s-''' and is placed before the verb root. Irregularities are not uncommon. <br /> Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Regular Construction<br /> !Incorporation<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota ʃøga'''<br /> |'''sʃøgkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat meat&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota dabasa'''<br /> |'''sdabaskota'''<br /> |&quot;eat bread&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota drupala'''<br /> |'''sdrupalkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat vegetables&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota pinim'''<br /> |'''spinimkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat fruit&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''twiʃin halajna'''<br /> |'''shalantwiʃin'''<br /> |&quot;drink water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''twiʃin myndra'''<br /> |'''smyndtwiʃin'''<br /> |&quot;drink alcoholic beverage&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys menira'''<br /> |'''smeniraldesyys'''<br /> |&quot;take care of a child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys apsala'''<br /> |'''sapsaldesyys'''<br /> |&quot;take care of everything&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi tuglaa'''<br /> |'''stuglussi'''<br /> |&quot;hear a noise&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka pœrakʃa'''<br /> |'''spœrakʃaka'''<br /> |&quot;hunt a beast&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak tilmara'''<br /> |'''stilmatrak'''<br /> |&quot;make a mistake&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> =Word Formation=<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> !Examples<br /> |-<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |agent, doer, -er<br /> |'''ballast''' &quot;to study&quot; ⇒ '''ballastɛv''' &quot;student&quot;<br /> '''pɾujn''' &quot;to paint&quot; ⇒ '''pɾujnɛv''' &quot;painter&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''egast''' &quot;to farm&quot; ⇒ '''egastɛv''' &quot;farmer&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |'''-mal'''<br /> |action, -tion<br /> |'''ballast''' &quot;to study&quot; ⇒ '''ballastmal''' &quot;study, dedication&quot;<br /> '''pɾujn''' &quot;to paint&quot; ⇒ '''pɾujnmal''' &quot;(action of) painting&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''egast''' &quot;to farm&quot; ⇒ '''egastmal''' &quot;(action of) farming&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |'''-ʃim'''<br /> |adjective<br /> |'''baruk''' &quot;interest&quot; ⇒ '''barukʃim''' &quot;interesting&quot;<br /> '''tuglaa''' &quot;noise&quot; ⇒ '''tuglaaʃim''' &quot;noisy&quot;<br /> &lt;!---<br /> |-<br /> |'''-'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-''' &quot;&quot; ⇒ '''-''' &quot;&quot;<br /> '''-''' &quot;&quot; ⇒ '''-''' &quot;&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-''' &quot;&quot; ⇒ '''-''' &quot;&quot;<br /> '''-''' &quot;&quot; ⇒ '''-''' &quot;&quot;<br /> --&gt;<br /> |}</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Conlangs/Dahur&diff=5386 Conlangs/Dahur 2026-10-16T21:51:27Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>{{DISPLAYTITLE:Dahur}}<br /> {{RightTOC}}<br /> =Phonology=<br /> <br /> ==Vowels==<br /> <br /> Dahur vowels are usually short. Double vowels (ex.: aa, ee &amp;c.) may happen, but they are considered as simple vowel sequences.<br /> <br /> The following vowels qualities are distinguished: <br /> <br /> '''a''' '''e''' '''ɛ''' '''i''' '''o''' '''ɔ''' '''ø''' '''œ''' '''u''' '''y'''<br /> <br /> The diagram below shows the 10 vowels of Dahur.<br /> <br /> [[File:dahurvowels.png|link=]]<br /> <br /> In practice, the vowel /a/ may actually vary between /a/, /ä/ and /ɑ/.<br /> <br /> Merging of /ø/ and /œ/ is fairly common, especially in more informal contexts, as these two vowels mostly don't occur as minimal pair (except in a couple cases).<br /> <br /> ==Consonants==<br /> <br /> Dahur consonants are as follows: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;border-width:0px&quot;|<br /> !Bilabial<br /> !Labiodental<br /> !Alveolar<br /> !Postalveolar<br /> !Palatal<br /> !Velar<br /> !Glottal<br /> |-<br /> !Nasal<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''m'''<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''n'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Plosive<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''p''' '''b'''<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''t''' '''d'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''k''' '''g'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Sibilant fricative<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''s''' '''z'''<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''ʃ''' '''ʒ''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Non-sibilant fricative<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''f''' '''v''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''h'''<br /> |-<br /> !Approximant<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''j'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Tap/Flap/Trill<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''ɾ''' '''r''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Lateral Approx.<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''l'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The rhotic consonant ('''r''') is in free variation and may be realised either as a tap, a flap or a trill. The trill pronunciation (/r/) is more common at the beginning of a syllable, and even more so at the beginning of a word. The tap/flap pronunciation (/ɾ/) is more common in consonant clusters, especially after a plosive. <br /> <br /> In Dahur phonology, the combinations '''tr''' and '''kʃ''' count as single, independent consonants.<br /> <br /> ==Phonotactics==<br /> A syllable in Dahur must contain one vowel, which may be preceded and/or followed by any number of consonants. In practice, consonant clusters don't usually go beyond four consonants. For that account, '''kʃ''' and '''tɾ''' are always considered as single consonants. <br /> <br /> All consonant sequences are possible. However, in practice, some consonant combinations (ex. '''-hm-''', '''-tɾkʃ-''' &amp;c.) are rare.<br /> <br /> Some studies consider the existence of a glottal stop when a proper consonant is absent. This view is reflected in the writing, which has a special sign for the glottal stop / lack of a consonant. The last consonant of a syllable can be doubled. <br /> <br /> Examples of valid syllables: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''a'''<br /> | '''tɛ'''<br /> | '''en'''<br /> | '''wi'''<br /> | '''koj'''<br /> | '''gjɔ'''<br /> | '''pɾujn'''<br /> | '''kʃtɾa'''<br /> | '''fʃtlœmbz'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Stress==<br /> In the standard pronunciation, words are stressed on the next-to-last syllable. However, if the last syllable contains the consonant /tɾ/, it will be stressed.<br /> <br /> Ex.:<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''&lt;u&gt;ka&lt;/u&gt;nar''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/ˈka.nar/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''os&lt;u&gt;trøn&lt;/u&gt;dɛl''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/os.ˈtɾøn.dɛl/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''&lt;u&gt;tef&lt;/u&gt;ʃiv''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/ˈtef.ʃiv/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''da&lt;u&gt;sutɾ&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/daˈsutɾ/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''maʃkin&lt;u&gt;tɾod&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/maʃ.kinˈtɾod/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Doubled vowels in the last syllable may sound as a long, stressed vowel; however, they are actually two separate vowels, each one in a different syllable, with stress falling on the first one (or on the last, in case that syllable contains the consonant '''tr'''). It is not uncommon to hear an epenthetic '''h''', '''j''' or '''w''' between the two vowels.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kaj&lt;u&gt;na&lt;/u&gt;ar''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/kaj.ˈna.ar/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/kaj.ˈna.har/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> | '''pakisa&lt;u&gt;atr&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/pa.ki.sa.ˈatr/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/pa.ki.sa.ˈhatr/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> | '''tøndel&lt;u&gt;li&lt;/u&gt;in''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.in/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.jin/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.hin/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''talde&lt;u&gt;sy&lt;/u&gt;ys''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tal.de.ˈsy.ys/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tal.de.ˈsy.hys/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =Writing=<br /> <br /> [[Dahur script]] consists in an alphasyllabary consisting in separate letters indicating consonants, a combination of separate letters and diacritics to indicate vowels, as well as certain special letters for individual syllables.<br /> <br /> =Morphology=<br /> <br /> Dahur is a highly flexional language, with a strong presence of irregular forms.<br /> <br /> Nouns inflect for number, which is basically singular and plural, but there are also occurrences of dual (for things normally occurring in pairs) and singulative (for individual items of things usually found collectively). <br /> <br /> Nouns also inflect for case, usually: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, locative, instrumental, ergative and ablative. Instances of partitive and vocative are also found. The case called ergative is used basically for the agent of the passive voice.<br /> <br /> Adjectives show no agreement to nouns, and inflect for degree (comparatives of superiority, equality, inferiority; relative and absolute superlative).<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Nouns==<br /> <br /> <br /> === Class ===<br /> <br /> Dahurian nouns are divided in five classes, which can be compared to Latin or Greek declensions, as they consist in different inflection patterns, but may also be seen as a form of gender, as class is usually (but not always necessarily) related to the meaning of a noun. <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class 1<br /> |Living beings<br /> |-<br /> !Class 2<br /> |General objects<br /> |-<br /> !Class 3<br /> |Natural elements; insects<br /> |-<br /> !Class 4<br /> |Parts of human body; clothing<br /> |-<br /> !Class 5<br /> |Abstract nouns; traditional imaginary beings<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There are no morphological indications related to noun classes in the nominative singular. The differences appear along the inflection of nouns.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Number ===<br /> Nouns in Dahur have a singular and a plural. The plural ending varies according to noun class and to case. There is also a dual number, which is valid only for nouns normally occurring in pairs. Mass or collective nouns have a singulative inflection, but this is not very systematically indicated.<br /> <br /> <br /> So, for example:<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> !Dual<br /> !Singulative<br /> |-<br /> |class 1<br /> |'''grats'''<br /> &quot;boy&quot;<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> &quot;boys&quot;<br /> | -<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 2<br /> |'''kɛʃev'''<br /> &quot;hammer&quot;<br /> |'''kɛʃevlin'''<br /> &quot;hammers&quot;<br /> |'''kɛʃevs'''<br /> &quot;pair of hammers&quot; (traditionally used by blacksmiths)<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 3<br /> |'''halajn'''<br /> &quot;water&quot;<br /> |'''halejnn'''<br /> &quot;waters&quot; (i.e. in a flood)<br /> |'''halajns'''<br /> &quot;The Two Waters&quot; (the river Okanuma and the lake Kassanjas)<br /> |'''halajny'''<br /> &quot;a drop of water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |class 4<br /> |'''kanar'''<br /> &quot;eye&quot;<br /> |'''kanarni'''<br /> &quot;many eyes&quot; (mostly figuratively)<br /> |'''kanaris'''<br /> &quot;(two/both) eyes&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 4<br /> |'''kʃalim'''<br /> &quot;hair&quot;<br /> |'''kʃalimni'''<br /> &quot;(types of) hair&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |'''kʃalimy'''<br /> &quot;a (single) hair&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |class 5<br /> |'''astrønɛl'''<br /> &quot;idea&quot;<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> &quot;ideas&quot;<br /> |'''astrønɛls'''<br /> &quot;a couple ideas&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The plural in classes 1, 2 and 5 is usually regular, obtained with the respective suffixes ('''-en''', '''-lin''', '''-jan'''). <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 1<br /> |'''katlaj'''<br /> &quot;girlfriend&quot;<br /> |'''katlajen'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''dukʃatr'''<br /> &quot;boss&quot;<br /> |'''dukʃatren'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''egastɛv'''<br /> &quot;farmer&quot;<br /> |'''egastɛven'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 2<br /> |'''takoj'''<br /> &quot;pin&quot;<br /> |'''takojlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''uhpsan'''<br /> &quot;paper&quot;<br /> |'''uhpsanlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''dasutr'''<br /> &quot;document, file&quot;<br /> |'''dasutrlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 5<br /> |'''pɛktegal'''<br /> &quot;angel&quot;<br /> |'''pɛktegaljan'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ostrøndɛl'''<br /> &quot;interruption&quot;<br /> |'''ostrøndɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''piktaraʃ'''<br /> &quot;problem&quot;<br /> |'''piktaraʃjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In classes 3 and 4, besides the suffixes ('''-n''', '''-ni'''), most nouns suffer some sort of mutation, usually affecting only one vowel but non uncommonly consisting of more significative changes.<br /> <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 3<br /> |'''pakpaki'''<br /> &quot;louse&quot;<br /> |'''pakpɛkin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''pahalis'''<br /> &quot;leaf&quot;<br /> |'''pahaljen'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''tʃeptal'''<br /> &quot;cloud&quot;<br /> |'''tʃapatlin''', '''tʃaptlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 4<br /> |'''kraus'''<br /> &quot;ear&quot;<br /> |'''krojsni'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ɛmblew'''<br /> &quot;hat&quot;<br /> |'''ɛmbalni'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''krikter'''<br /> &quot;helmet&quot;<br /> |'''kruktni'''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Case ===<br /> Dahur nouns inflect for the following cases: <br /> * '''nominative''' (subject, predicative)<br /> * '''accusative''' (direct object, motion towards)<br /> * '''dative''' (indirect object)<br /> * '''genitive''' (possession, partitive, origin)<br /> * '''locative''' (location, placement)<br /> * '''instrumental''' (instrument, means, company)<br /> * '''ablative''' (adverbial)<br /> * '''ergative''' (agent of the passive voice)<br /> <br /> All cases except the nominative and the ergative can be used with prepositions.<br /> <br /> Certain nouns, mostly nouns indicating human beings, also show a vocative form, mostly formed with the ending '''-e''', but usually irregular. <br /> <br /> Certain nouns, for example nouns indicating mass or food, show a partitive case, usually formed with the ending '''-(i)t'''. <br /> <br /> <br /> === Inflection ===<br /> <br /> Noun declension in Dahur is quite regular, in terms of case and the less usual numbers, viz. the dual and the singulative.<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 1<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 2<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 3<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 4<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 5<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''-'''<br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-en'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-lin'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-n'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-is'''<br /> |'''-ni'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-an'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-lajn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-an'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-jas'''<br /> |'''-nja'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-un'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-lun'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-wan'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-ujs'''<br /> |'''-nu'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-ujn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''-ak'''<br /> |'''-ask'''<br /> |'''-ken'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ik'''<br /> |'''-isk'''<br /> |'''-link'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-aʃ'''<br /> |'''-ʃas'''<br /> |'''-ʃan'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-iʃ'''<br /> |'''-siʃ'''<br /> |'''-niʃ'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ik'''<br /> |'''-isk'''<br /> |'''-jank'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-emb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-limb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-emb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-bis'''<br /> |'''-nibb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-jamb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-nom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-lom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-nom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-joms'''<br /> |'''-njom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-njom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-nɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-lɛnv''', '''-lɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-nɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-jɛfs'''<br /> |'''-njɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-njɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-løtr'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-sjøtr'''<br /> |'''-trøjn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøjn'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> &lt;!---<br /> * The '''nominative''' case is the basic form of nouns.<br /> * The '''accusative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-a'''. <br /> * The '''dative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-si'''.<br /> * The '''genitive''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ak''' for animate intelligent beings, '''-iʃ''' for animals, '''-is''' for concrete objects and '''-ɔn''' for abstract things.<br /> * The '''locative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-us'''. With animate nouns, the locative can mean &quot;on&quot;, or &quot;with&quot;, as in &quot;carrying with&quot;. <br /> * The '''instrumental''' case is indicated by the enging '''-em''' for animate intelligent beings, '''-om''' for animals, '''-um''' for things.<br /> * The '''ergative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-øtr'''. <br /> * The '''ablative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ɛv'''. <br /> --&gt;<br /> <br /> When an ending starting with a vowel is applied, a final '''-i''' becomes '''-j-''', and a final '''-u''' becomes '''-w-'''; otherwise, an '''-h-''' is added. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''dula''' &quot;babysitter&quot;, '''dulahen''' &quot;babysitters&quot;<br /> * '''agdari''' &quot;prisoner&quot;, '''agdarjen''' &quot;prisoners&quot;<br /> * '''pakpaki''' &quot;louse&quot;, '''pakpakja''' &quot;louse (accus.)&quot;, '''pakpakjaʃ''' &quot;of a louse&quot;, '''pakpakjom''' &quot;by a louse&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> In the following tables, you have some examples of nouns of the various classes, fully inflected for number and case.<br /> <br /> * Class 1: '''grats''' &quot;boy&quot; <br /> * Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' &quot;hammer&quot; <br /> * Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' &quot;cloud&quot; <br /> * Class 4: '''kraus''' &quot;ear&quot; <br /> * Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' &quot;idea&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 1: '''grats''' &quot;boy&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''grats'''<br /> |'''gratss'''<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''gratsa'''<br /> |'''gratsas'''<br /> |'''gratsan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''gratsu'''<br /> |'''gratsus'''<br /> |'''gratsun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''gratsak'''<br /> |'''gratsask'''<br /> |'''gratsken'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''gratsebb'''<br /> |'''gratseps'''<br /> |'''gratsemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''gratsom'''<br /> |'''gratsoms'''<br /> |'''gratsnom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''gratsɛv'''<br /> |'''gratsɛfs'''<br /> |'''gratsnɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''gratsøtr'''<br /> |'''gratssøtr'''<br /> |'''gratsetrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Vocative<br /> |'''gratse'''<br /> |'''gratses'''<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' &quot;hammer&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''kɛʃev'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevs'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlin'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''kɛʃeva'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevas'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlajn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''kɛʃevu'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevus'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''kɛʃevik'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevisk'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlink'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''kɛʃevebb'''<br /> |'''kɛʃeveps'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlimb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''kɛʃevom'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevoms'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''kɛʃevɛv'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevɛfs'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlɛnv''', '''kɛʃevlɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''kɛʃevøtr'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevsøtr'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevløtr'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' &quot;cloud&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''tʃeptal'''<br /> |'''tʃeptals'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlin'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''tʃeptala'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalas'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlijan''', '''tʃaptljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''tʃeptalu'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalus'''<br /> |'''tʃaptliwan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''tʃeptalaʃ'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalʃas'''<br /> |'''tʃaptliʃan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''tʃeptalebb'''<br /> |'''tʃeptaleps'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlijemb''', '''tʃaptljemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''tʃeptalom'''<br /> |'''tʃeptaloms'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlinom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''tʃeptalɛv'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalɛfs'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlinɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''tʃeptaløtr'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalsøtr'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlitrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''tʃeptalt'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalts'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlint'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 4: '''kraus''' &quot;ear&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''kraus'''<br /> |'''krausis'''<br /> |'''krojsni'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''krausa'''<br /> |'''krausjas'''<br /> |'''krojsnja'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''krausu'''<br /> |'''krausujs'''<br /> |'''krojsnu'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''krausiʃ'''<br /> |'''kraussiʃ'''<br /> |'''krojsniʃ'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''krausebb'''<br /> |'''krauseps'''<br /> |'''krojsnibb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''krausom'''<br /> |'''krausoms'''<br /> |'''krojsnjom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''krausɛv'''<br /> |'''krausɛfs'''<br /> |'''krojsnjɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''krausøtr'''<br /> |'''krausjøtr'''<br /> |'''krojstrøjn'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' &quot;idea&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''astrønɛls'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''astrønɛla'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlas'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''astrønɛlu'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlus'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlujn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''astrønɛlik'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlisk'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljank'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''astrønɛlebb'''<br /> |'''astrønɛleps'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljamb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''astrønɛlom'''<br /> |'''astrønɛloms'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlnjom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''astrønɛlɛv'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlɛfs'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlnjɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''astrønɛløtr'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlsøtr'''<br /> |'''astrønɛltrøjn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''astrønɛlt'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlts'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljant'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Articles ==<br /> <br /> === Definite Article === <br /> <br /> The definite article inflects for case and number, and is quite irregular. <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> !Singulative <br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''tru'''<br /> |'''gas'''<br /> |'''tann'''<br /> |'''try'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''na'''<br /> |'''ga'''<br /> |'''ta'''<br /> |'''ny'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''kʃu'''<br /> |'''gu'''<br /> |'''tun'''<br /> |'''kʃu'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''kis'''<br /> |'''gak'''<br /> |'''tak'''<br /> |'''kis'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''debb'''<br /> |'''gebb'''<br /> |'''tebb'''<br /> |'''debb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''trom'''<br /> |'''gom'''<br /> |'''tom'''<br /> |'''trom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative <br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |'''gɛv'''<br /> |'''tɛv'''<br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''trø'''<br /> |'''gøtr'''<br /> |'''tøtr'''<br /> |'''trø'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Indefinite Article === <br /> <br /> Dahur has no proper indefinite article. <br /> <br /> If it's really necessary to mark a noun phrase as indefinite, an indefinite pronoun may be used. The most common is '''lum''' (invariable), meaning &quot;some&quot;, &quot;a certain&quot; &amp;c.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Prepositions ==<br /> <br /> Prepositions in Dahur require the noun in one of the following cases: <br /> <br /> * accusative<br /> * dative<br /> * genitive<br /> * ablative<br /> * instrumental<br /> * locative<br /> <br /> The nominative and the ergative are '''never''' used with prepositions. <br /> <br /> In the table below you have the most common Dahur prepositions: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Preposition<br /> !Case<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''dun'''<br /> |''locative'', ''accusative of movement''<br /> |inside<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''yin'''<br /> |''dative''<br /> |for, in behalf of<br /> |-<br /> |''accusative''<br /> |towards<br /> |-<br /> |'''ari''', '''ar'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |from, out of<br /> |-<br /> |'''yuʃ'''<br /> |''genitive'', ''ablative''<br /> |because of<br /> |-<br /> |'''vøj'''<br /> |''locative''<br /> |through<br /> |-<br /> |'''syn'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |near<br /> |-<br /> |'''kʃe'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |since, ago<br /> |-<br /> |'''pɛn'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |besides, next to<br /> |-<br /> |'''lujg'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |in front of<br /> |-<br /> |'''mœh'''<br /> |''ablative''<br /> |without<br /> |-<br /> |'''sto'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |on, on top of<br /> |-<br /> |'''krɔj'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |under<br /> |-<br /> |'''tjɛs'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |before (time)<br /> |-<br /> |'''gwaj'''<br /> |''accusative''<br /> |after (time)<br /> |-<br /> |'''fyj'''<br /> |''ablative''<br /> |during<br /> |-<br /> |'''vlen'''<br /> |''instrumental''<br /> |despite<br /> |-<br /> |'''uhk'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |except<br /> |-<br /> |'''uzd'''<br /> |''dative''<br /> |instead of<br /> |-<br /> |'''blas'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |behind<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> * '''yin na hedana''' &quot;towards the house&quot;<br /> * '''dun na hedana''' &quot;into the house&quot;<br /> * '''ar kis hedanik''' &quot;from the house&quot;, &quot;out of the house&quot;<br /> * '''syn debb hedanebb''' &quot;near the house&quot;<br /> * '''syn na hedana''' &quot;going near of the house&quot;<br /> * '''pɛn debb hedanebb''' &quot;besides the house&quot;, &quot;next to the house&quot;<br /> * '''pɛn na hedana''' &quot;going next to the house&quot;<br /> * '''lujg debb hedanebb''' &quot;in front to the house&quot;<br /> * '''lujg na hedana''' &quot;going to the front of the house&quot;<br /> * '''mœh dɛv hedanɛv''' &quot;without the house&quot;<br /> * '''sto debb hedanebb''' &quot;on top of the house&quot;<br /> * '''sto na hedana''' &quot;going onto (the top of) the house&quot;<br /> * '''krɔj debb hedanebb''' &quot;under the house&quot;<br /> * '''uzd kʃu hedanu''' &quot;instead of the house&quot;<br /> * '''blas debb hedanebb''' &quot;behind the house&quot;<br /> * '''blas na hedana''' &quot;going behind the house&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> == Adjectives ==<br /> <br /> === Attributive Adjectives ===<br /> Attributive adjectives in Dahur are invariable and come before the noun. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''fɛren grats''' &quot;a smart boy&quot;<br /> * '''duʃ halajn''' &quot;clean water&quot;<br /> * '''selak kanaris''' &quot;pretty eyes&quot;<br /> <br /> A few attributes may be expressed by affixes to the noun, instead of the separate adjective. The most common ones are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar'''<br /> |'''-os''' <br /> (usually deleting the last vowel of the original noun)<br /> |&quot;big&quot;, &quot;large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr'''<br /> |'''-in-''' <br /> (before the last vowel of the or. noun)<br /> |&quot;small&quot;, &quot;little&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani'''<br /> |'''-(t)ta-''' <br /> (before the second vowel of the or. noun)<br /> |&quot;good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''<br /> |'''-aar'''<br /> |&quot;bad&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !With Adjective<br /> !With Affixed Form<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''piktarʃos''' <br /> |&quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''piktarinaʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a little problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''attastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a good idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlaar'''<br /> |&quot;a bad idea&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Certain adjectives have a special, shortened form, which is prefixed to nouns when used attributively. <br /> The most common ones are: <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar'''<br /> |'''nah-''' <br /> |&quot;big&quot;, &quot;large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr'''<br /> |'''ki-''' <br /> (doubles the initial consonant of the noun)<br /> |&quot;small&quot;, &quot;little&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani'''<br /> |'''suw-''' ('''suww-''' before vowels)<br /> |&quot;good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''<br /> |'''dag-''' ('''dagg-''' before vowels)<br /> |&quot;bad&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin'''<br /> |'''sin-''' <br /> |&quot;new&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ'''<br /> |'''dom-''' <br /> |&quot;old&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''mahhalis'''<br /> |'''mah-''' <br /> |&quot;ancient&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''', '''makʃølin'''<br /> |'''møkʃ-''' <br /> |&quot;important&quot;, &quot;great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan'''<br /> |'''tos-''', '''tan-''' <br /> |&quot;beautiful&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki'''<br /> |'''killi-''' <br /> |&quot;false&quot;, &quot;fake&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !With Adjective<br /> !With Prefix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''nahpiktaraʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''kippiktaraʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a small problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''suwwastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a good idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''daggastrønɛl'''<br /> |&quot;a bad idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin dasutr'''<br /> |'''sindasutr''' <br /> |&quot;a new document&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ hedan'''<br /> |'''domhedan''' <br /> |&quot;an old house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''mahhalis kataʃtevan'''<br /> |'''mahkataʃtevan''' <br /> |&quot;an ancient civilization&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen dasutr''', '''makʃølin dasutr'''<br /> |'''møkʃdasutr''' <br /> |&quot;an important document&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen astrønɛl''', '''makʃølin astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''møkʃastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a great idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan dummal'''<br /> |'''tosdummal''', '''tandummal''' <br /> |&quot;a beautiful song&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki bɔrakʃ'''<br /> |'''killibɔrakʃ''' <br /> |&quot;false news&quot;, &quot;fake news&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Predicative Adjectives ===<br /> <br /> An adjective used in predicative function is invariable. Only the full forms of adjectives can be used predicatively. <br /> <br /> Usually a linking verb is employed. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru astrønɛl laje makʃølen.''' || The idea is great.<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru grats alanje befitra.''' || The boy is tired.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is also the possibility of turning adjectives into verbs. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru astrønɛl makʃølnaje.''' || The idea is great.<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru grats abefitranje.''' || The boy is tired.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The most common way to make an adjective into a verb, implying the idea of &quot;be&quot;, is the suffix '''-a-''', which may cause some change in the last syllable of the original adjective. If the adjective already ends in '''-a''', there is no change. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''' <br /> &quot;great&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølna''' <br /> &quot;be great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;be tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani''' <br /> &quot;good&quot;<br /> |'''suwanja''' <br /> &quot;be good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''' <br /> &quot;bad&quot;<br /> |'''daggusa''' <br /> &quot;be bad&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin''' <br /> &quot;new&quot;<br /> |'''sulna''', '''sinna''' <br /> &quot;be new&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ''' <br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dɛtra''' <br /> &quot;be old&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan''' <br /> &quot;beautiful&quot;<br /> |'''tossana''', '''tosna''' <br /> &quot;be beautiful&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''trapter''' <br /> &quot;unique&quot;<br /> |'''traptra''' <br /> &quot;be unique&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃɔtma''' <br /> &quot;sure&quot;, &quot;certain&quot;<br /> |'''ʃɔtama''' <br /> &quot;be sure&quot;, &quot;be certain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kanikli''' <br /> &quot;appropriate&quot;<br /> |'''kankilja''' <br /> &quot;be appropriate&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tubbar''' <br /> &quot;white&quot;<br /> |'''tubabra''' <br /> &quot;be white&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kindis''' <br /> &quot;clear&quot;<br /> |'''kinitsa''' <br /> &quot;be clear&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''turu'''<br /> &quot;wrong&quot;<br /> |'''turva''', '''terva'''<br /> &quot;be wrong&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''divlaas'''<br /> &quot;sick, ill&quot;<br /> |'''dulaasa'''<br /> &quot;be sick, be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tadʒon'''<br /> &quot;pleased&quot;<br /> |'''todʒna'''<br /> &quot;be pleased&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''eskataʃi'''<br /> &quot;acquainted&quot;<br /> |'''eskataʃʃa''', '''eskatʃa'''<br /> &quot;be acquainted&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Another suffix is '''-(a)st(a)-''', meaning &quot;to get&quot; or &quot;to become&quot;. The first optional '''-a-''' appears when necessary, to avoid unsuitable consonant clusters, while the final '''-a''' is only used in the infinitive form of the verb - i.e., without any suffixes. There are some irregular formations.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''' <br /> &quot;great&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølnasta''' <br /> &quot;become great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitrasta''' <br /> &quot;get tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar''' <br /> &quot;big, large&quot;<br /> |'''nahasta''', '''narasta''' <br /> &quot;get big&quot;, &quot;increase&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr''' <br /> &quot;little, small&quot;<br /> |'''kitrasta''', '''katrasta''', '''kirrasta''' <br /> &quot;get smaller&quot;, &quot;decrease&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani''' <br /> &quot;good&quot;<br /> |'''suwanasta'''<br /> &quot;become good&quot;<br /> <br /> '''suwasta''', '''sawasta''', '''suwnasta''' <br /> <br /> &quot;get better&quot;, &quot;improve&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''' , '''daggussa'''<br /> &quot;bad&quot;<br /> |'''daggusasta''', '''daggussasta''' <br /> &quot;become bad&quot;<br /> <br /> '''daggasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get worse&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ'''<br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛsta'''<br /> &quot;become old&quot;<br /> <br /> '''dotrasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get older&quot;, &quot;to age&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan'''<br /> &quot;beautiful<br /> |'''tossanasta'''<br /> &quot;become beautiful&quot;<br /> <br /> '''tossasta''', '''tosnasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get prettier&quot;, &quot;beautify&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki'''<br /> &quot;false&quot;, &quot;fake&quot;<br /> |'''ablikasta'''<br /> &quot;become invalid&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''divlaas'''<br /> &quot;sick, ill&quot;<br /> |'''dulaasta'''<br /> &quot;be sick, be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''eskataʃi'''<br /> &quot;acquainted&quot;<br /> |'''eskatʃasta'''<br /> &quot;get acquainted&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> A few other suffixes perform similar tasks, with more specific meanings. These are usually quite regular. The most productive among these suffixes are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-we'''<br /> |&quot;to remain&quot;, &quot;still be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-kas'''<br /> |&quot;to seem&quot;, &quot;to appear&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-ʃyn'''<br /> |&quot;to pretend to be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-dobb(a)-'''<br /> |&quot;to cease to be&quot;, &quot;to be no longer&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-guj'''<br /> |&quot;to be a little bit&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''nøssar''' <br /> &quot;calm&quot;<br /> |'''nøssarwe''' &quot;remain calm&quot;, &quot;keep calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarkaʃ''' &quot;seem/appear calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarʃyn''' &quot;pretend to be calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssardobba''' &quot;cease to be calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarguj''' &quot;be a little calm&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ''' <br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛkaʃ''' &quot;seem/appear old&quot;<br /> <br /> '''dotrɛguj''' &quot;be a little old&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Comparative === <br /> The comparative of superiority of an adjective can be made by adding the suffix '''-ju''' to the stem. This suffix doubles a preceeding consonant, or becomes '''-jju''' when preceeded by a vowel. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''fɛrennju grats''' &quot;a smarter boy&quot;<br /> * '''duʃʃju halajn''' &quot;cleaner water&quot;<br /> * '''selakkju kanaris''' &quot;prettier eyes&quot;<br /> * '''naharrju piktaraʃ''' &quot;a bigger problem&quot;<br /> * '''kittrju piktaraʃ''' &quot;a smaller problem&quot; <br /> * '''suwanijju astrønɛl''' &quot;a better idea&quot;<br /> * '''daggussju''' / '''daggussajju astrønɛl''' &quot;a worse idea&quot;<br /> * '''dotrɛjju pɛten''' &quot;an older book&quot;<br /> <br /> Comparative adjectives may be turned into verbs regularly with the suffix '''-a''', which then becomes '''-wa'''. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølennju''' <br /> &quot;greater&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølennjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be greater&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitrajju''' <br /> &quot;more tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitrajjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be more tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwanijju''' <br /> &quot;better&quot;<br /> |'''suwanijjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be better&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulinnju''' <br /> &quot;newer&quot;<br /> |'''sulinnjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be newer&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛjju''' <br /> &quot;older&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛjjuwa'''<br /> &quot;be older&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossannju''' <br /> &quot;more beautiful&quot;<br /> |'''tossannjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be more beautiful&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The complement of a comparison, corresponding to the conjunction &quot;than&quot;, is placed in the ablative case. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''Nuv pɛten laej suwanijju tuhafɛv.''' &quot;This book is better than that one&quot;<br /> * '''Nuv pɛten suwanijjuwaej tuhafɛv.''' (idem)<br /> * '''Tru dukʃatr laej dotrɛjju dɛv egastɛvɛv.''' &quot;The boss is older than the farmer&quot;<br /> * '''Tru dukʃatr dotrɛjjuwaej dɛv egastɛvɛv.''' (idem)<br /> <br /> == Numerals ==<br /> The basic cardinal numbers are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |0 || '''kal''', '''kahtral'''<br /> |-<br /> |1 || '''mihen'''<br /> |-<br /> |2 || '''dahas'''<br /> |-<br /> |3 || '''travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |4 || '''gazen'''<br /> |-<br /> |5 || '''kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |6 || '''pinjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |7 || '''høtak'''<br /> |-<br /> |8 || '''magɛl'''<br /> |-<br /> |9 || '''donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |10 || '''zɛhɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |11 || '''zɛhɛv mihen''', '''zɛvhen'''<br /> |-<br /> |12 || '''zɛhɛv dahas''', '''zɛvdas'''<br /> |-<br /> |13 || '''zɛhɛv travis''', '''zɛvtras'''<br /> |-<br /> |14 || '''zɛhɛv gazen''', '''zɛvzen'''<br /> |-<br /> |15 || '''zɛhɛv kɛʃav''', '''zɛvkʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |16 || '''zɛhɛv pinjan''', '''zɛvpan'''<br /> |-<br /> |17 || '''zɛhɛv høtak''','''zɛvhøk'''<br /> |-<br /> |18 || '''zɛhɛv magɛl''', '''zɛvmal'''<br /> |-<br /> |19 || '''zɛhɛv donwaʒ''', '''zɛvdaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |20 || '''dahassɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |30 || '''travissɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |40 || '''gazennɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |50 || '''kɛʃavvɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |60 || '''pinjannɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |70 || '''høtakkɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |80 || '''magɛllɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |90 || '''donwaʒʒɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |100 || '''lakin'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,000 || '''tatrimi'''<br /> |-<br /> |10,000 || '''zɛhɛv tatrimi'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Numbers are composed by joining the base units above, from bigger to lower. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |23 || '''dahassɛv travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |45 || '''gazennɛv kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |67 || '''pinjannɛv høtak'''<br /> |-<br /> |89 || '''magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |123 || '''lakin dahassɛv travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |456 || '''gazen lakin kɛʃavvɛv pinjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |789 || '''høtak lakin magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,234 || '''tatrimi dahas lakin travissɛv gazen'''<br /> |-<br /> |5,678 || '''kɛʃav tatrimi pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl'''<br /> |-<br /> |12,345 || '''zɛvdas tatrimi travis lakin gazennɛv kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |678,910 || '''pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl tatrimi donwaʒ lakin zɛhɛv'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Ordinal numbers are created with the suffix '''-iki'''. Ex.: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |1st || '''miheniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |2nd || '''dahasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |3rd || '''travisiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |4th || '''gazeniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |5th || '''kɛʃaviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |6th || '''pinjaniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |7th || '''høtakiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |8th || '''magɛliki'''<br /> |-<br /> |9th || '''donwaʒiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |10th || '''zɛhɛviki''', '''zɛhviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |11th || '''zɛvheniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |12th || '''zɛvdasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |13th || '''zɛvtrasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |14th || '''zɛvzeniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |15th || '''zɛvkʃaviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |16th || '''zɛvpaniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |17th || '''zɛvhøkiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |18th || '''zɛvmaliki'''<br /> |-<br /> |19th || '''zɛvdaʒiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |20th || '''dahassɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |30th || '''travissɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |40th || '''gazennɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |50th || '''kɛʃavvɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |60th || '''pinjannɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |70th || '''høtakkɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |80th || '''magɛllɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |90th || '''donwaʒʒɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |100th || '''lakiniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,000th || '''tatrimiiki'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Pronouns ==<br /> <br /> === Personal Pronouns ===<br /> Personal Pronouns in Dahur indicate person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and number (singular, dual, plural).<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|1st Person<br /> |'''dɛ''' &quot;I&quot; , &quot;me&quot;<br /> |'''ʃes''' &quot;we both&quot;<br /> |'''ʃɛn''' &quot;we&quot;, &quot;us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''dɛ'''<br /> |'''ʃes'''<br /> |'''ʃɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''dɛa''', '''da'''<br /> |'''ʃeas''', '''ʃas'''<br /> |'''ʃan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''dɛw''', '''du'''<br /> |'''ʃeus''', '''ʃews''', '''ʃus'''<br /> |'''ʃɛun''', '''ʃɛwn''', '''ʃun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''dɛk'''<br /> |'''ʃesk'''<br /> |'''ʃɛkɛn''', '''ʃkɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''dɛbb'''<br /> |'''ʃeps'''<br /> |'''ʃɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''dɛm'''<br /> |'''ʃems'''<br /> |'''ʃɛom''', '''ʃom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |'''ʃɛfs'''<br /> |'''ʃɛɛv''', '''ʃɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''dɛjøtr''', '''dɛtr'''<br /> |'''ʃesøtr'''<br /> |'''ʃɛtrøn''', '''ʃtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''dɛt'''<br /> |'''ʃets'''<br /> |'''ʃɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|2nd Person<br /> |'''hej''' &quot;you (sg.), thou&quot;<br /> |'''kwes''' &quot;you both&quot;<br /> |'''kwɛn''' &quot;you (pl.)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''hej'''<br /> |'''kwes'''<br /> |'''kwɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''heja''', '''ja'''<br /> |'''kweas''', '''kwas'''<br /> |'''kwɛan''', '''kwan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''heju''', '''ju'''<br /> |'''kweus'''<br /> |'''kwɛun''', '''kun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''heik''', '''hejik'''<br /> |'''kwesk'''<br /> |'''kwɛnek''', '''kwɛnk'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''heibb''', '''hibb'''<br /> |'''kweps'''<br /> |'''kwɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''heim''', '''him'''<br /> |'''kwems'''<br /> |'''kwɛom''', '''kwɛm''', '''kwom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''hejɛv''', '''jɛv'''<br /> |'''kwɛfs'''<br /> |'''kwɛɛv''', '''kwɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''hejøtr''', '''hjøtr'''<br /> |'''kwesøtr'''<br /> |'''kwɛtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Vocative<br /> |'''heje'''<br /> |'''kwejes'''<br /> |'''kwɛjɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''hɛt'''<br /> |'''kwets'''<br /> |'''kwɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|3rd Person<br /> |'''nar''' &quot;he&quot;, &quot;she&quot;, &quot;it&quot;<br /> |'''ras''' &quot;they both&quot;<br /> |'''ren''' &quot;they&quot;, &quot;them&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''nar'''<br /> |'''ras'''<br /> |'''rɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''nara''', '''ra'''<br /> |'''ras'''<br /> |'''rɛan''', '''ran'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''naru''', '''ru'''<br /> |'''raus''', '''raws''', '''rus'''<br /> |'''rɛun''', '''rɛwn''', '''run'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''narɛk''', '''rɛk'''<br /> |'''resk'''<br /> |'''rɛkɛn''', '''ɛrken'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''narebb''', '''rebb'''<br /> |'''reps'''<br /> |'''rɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''narom''', '''rom'''<br /> |'''rems'''<br /> |'''rɛnom''', '''rom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''narɛv''', '''rɛv'''<br /> |'''rɛfs'''<br /> |'''rɛɛv''', '''rɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''narøtr''', '''røtr'''<br /> |'''resøtr'''<br /> |'''rɛtrøn''', '''ɛrtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''rɛt'''<br /> |'''rets'''<br /> |'''rɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The '''genitive''' forms work as possessive pronouns. In that case, the definite article is optional. Ex.: <br /> * '''tru dɛk astrønɛl''', '''dɛk astrønɛl''' &quot;my idea&quot;<br /> * '''na heik kʃalima''', '''heik kʃalima''' &quot;your hair (accus.)&quot;<br /> * '''trom narɛk kɛʃevom''', '''narɛk kɛʃevom''' &quot;with his/her hammer (instr.)&quot;<br /> * '''tu dɛk menirun''', '''dɛk menirun''' &quot;to my children (dat.)&quot;<br /> <br /> Object pronouns usually come before the verb. The shorter, unstressed version is preferred. Ex.: <br /> * '''Ja angenus.''' &quot;I can see you (sing.).&quot;<br /> * '''Kwas angenus.''' &quot;I can see you two.&quot;<br /> * '''Kwan angenus.''' &quot;I can see you (pl.).&quot;<br /> * '''Ra angenus.''' &quot;I can see it/him/her.&quot;<br /> * '''Ras angenus.''' &quot;I can see them both.&quot;<br /> * '''Ran angenus.''' &quot;I can see them.&quot;<br /> * '''Da angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see me.&quot;<br /> * '''ʃas angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see us both.&quot;<br /> * '''ʃan angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see us.&quot;<br /> <br /> An object pronoun may also appear after the verb. In that case, the preference is for the longer, stressed versions. Ex.:<br /> * '''Angenus ja/heja.''' &quot;I can see you (sing.).&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus kweas/kwas.''' &quot;I can see you two.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus kwɛan/kwan.''' &quot;I can see you (pl.).&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus nara/ra.''' &quot;I can see it/him/her.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus ras.''' &quot;I can see them both.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus rɛan/ran.''' &quot;I can see them.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej dɛa/da.''' &quot;He/she can see me.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej ʃeas/ʃas.''' &quot;He/she can see us both.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej ʃan.''' &quot;He/she can see us.&quot;<br /> <br /> The most common case for a verb complement is the accusative. However, verbs may require different cases. Ex.: <br /> * '''Kun dagsuttoj!''' &quot;It will harm you!&quot; / &quot;It will be harmful to you!&quot; ('''dagusta''' &quot;harm, be harmful&quot; + dat.)<br /> * '''Ja/Ju darʃinɔn.''' &quot;We trust you.&quot; ('''darʃin''' &quot;trust&quot; + acc./dat.)<br /> * '''Poglattindsa narɛv/rɛv''' &quot;I didn't use it.&quot; ('''poglar''' &quot;use&quot; + abl.)<br /> * '''Ra twiʃnettmis.''' &quot;You drank it (all).&quot; / '''Rɛt twiʃnettmis.''' &quot;You drank (some of) it.&quot; '''twiʃin''' &quot;drink&quot; +acc. (whole), +part. (specific amount)<br /> <br /> === Demonstrative Pronouns ===<br /> The main demonstrative pronouns are: <br /> <br /> * '''nuv''' &quot;this, these&quot;<br /> * '''tuhaf''' &quot;that, those&quot;<br /> <br /> When accompanying a noun, they behave as adjectives and are not inflected. <br /> <br /> When used on their own, they stand as nouns and are inflected according to the class of the intended noun. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''Nuv grats laej fɛrennju nuvɛv.''' &quot;This boy is smarter than this one.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> === Interrogative Pronouns ===<br /> <br /> === Indefinite Pronouns ===<br /> <br /> === Relative Pronoun ===<br /> The main relative pronoun in Dahur is '''jao''', as shown in the following table. <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''jao'''<br /> |'''jes'''<br /> |'''jen'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''jaa''', '''ja'''<br /> |'''jeas''', '''jas'''<br /> |'''jaan''', '''jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''jau''', '''jaw'''<br /> |'''jeus''', '''jews'''<br /> |'''jeun''', '''jewn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''jak'''<br /> |'''jesk'''<br /> |'''jenk'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''jaebb'''<br /> |'''jaeps'''<br /> |'''jaemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''jaom'''<br /> |'''jaoms'''<br /> |'''jaom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''jaɛv'''<br /> |'''jaɛfs'''<br /> |'''janɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''jaøtr'''<br /> |'''jasøtr'''<br /> |'''jatrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> | - <br /> |'''jets'''<br /> |'''jent'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The pronoun agrees in number with the antecedent, but its case is determined by its function in the subordinate clause. Ex.:<br /> * '''tru grats jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;the boy (nom.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''na gratsa jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;the boy (accus.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''kʃu gratsu jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;to the boy (dat.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''kis gratsak jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;of the boy (gen.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''trø gratsøtr jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;by the boy (erg.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''tann gratsen jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;the boys (nom.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''ta gratsan jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;the boys (accus.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tun gratsun jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;to the boys (dat.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tak gratsken jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr gratsetrøn jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tru grats jaa kahettsa''' &quot;the boy (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''na gratsa jaa kahettsa''' &quot;the boy (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''kʃu gratsu jaa kahettsa''' &quot;to the boy (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''kis gratsak jaa kahettsa''' &quot;of the boy (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''trø gratsøtr jaa kahettsa''' &quot;by the boy (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tann gratsen jaan kahettsa''' &quot;the boys (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''ta gratsan jaan kahettsa''' &quot;the boys (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tun gratsun jaan kahettsa''' &quot;to the boys (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tak gratsken jaan kahettsa''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr gratsetrøn jaan kahettsa''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> <br /> Besides this pronoun, relative clauses may also be formed with participles. <br /> <br /> Ex.:<br /> <br /> * '''tru ateʃfanur grats''' &quot;the boy (nom.) who is running away&quot; <br /> * '''na ateʃfanur gratsa''' &quot;the boy (accus.) who is running away&quot; <br /> * '''tak ateʃfanur gratsken''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) who are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tru dɛtr kahettek grats''', '''tru grats dɛtr kahettek''' &quot;the boy (nom.) whom I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr dɛtr kahettek gratsetrøn''', '''tøtr gratsetrøn dɛtr kahettek''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) whom I saw&quot;<br /> <br /> == Verbs ==<br /> <br /> === Finite Forms ===<br /> <br /> Verbs in Dahur have different stems indicating aspect. The conjugation uses different sets of endings to indicate tense or time. <br /> <br /> The basic verb stems are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Aspect<br /> !Meaning<br /> !Form<br /> |-<br /> |Generic<br /> |''verbal idea without a specific context, time or aspect''<br /> |the basic stem of the verb<br /> |-<br /> |Cursive (Progressive; Continuous)<br /> |''action ongoing at the moment of reference<br /> |prefix '''a-''' and suffix '''-(a)n-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Aorist<br /> |''a complete or punctual action''<br /> |suffix '''-(e)tt-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Perfect<br /> |''the result of an action that happened before the reference time''<br /> |suffix '''-(l)l(a)-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Unrealised (Future)<br /> |''action as not realised in relation to the reference time''<br /> |prefix '''u-''' and suffix '''-(u)ʃ-''' <br /> |-<br /> |Conditional<br /> |''irrealis, usually an action depending on another''<br /> |prefix '''i-''' (doubling the initial consonant) and suffix '''-i-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Stem formation is often irregular. <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Generic<br /> !Cursive<br /> !Aorist<br /> !Perfect<br /> !Unrealised<br /> !Conditional <br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmal-'''<br /> |'''akʃmalan-'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalett-'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalla-'''<br /> |'''ukaʃmaluʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkaʃmali-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''la-'''<br /> |'''alan-'''<br /> |'''latt-'''<br /> |'''lalla-'''<br /> |'''ulauʃ-'''<br /> |'''illai-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''wennin''' &quot;live&quot; <br /> |'''wennin-'''<br /> |'''awann-'''<br /> |'''wennett-'''<br /> |'''wennilla-'''<br /> |'''uwenninʃ-'''<br /> |'''iwennini-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadra-'''<br /> |'''agandran-'''<br /> |'''gadrett-'''<br /> |'''gadralla-'''<br /> |'''ugadruʃ-'''<br /> |'''iggadri-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''tefʃiv''' &quot;flee&quot;<br /> |'''tefʃiv-'''<br /> |'''ateʃfan-'''<br /> |'''tefʃivett-'''<br /> |'''tefʃivla-'''<br /> |'''utefʃivuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittefʃivi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maʃkintɾod''' &quot;represent&quot;<br /> |'''maʃkintɾod-'''<br /> |'''amaʃkintɾon-'''<br /> |'''maʃkintɾott-'''<br /> |'''maʃkintɾolla-'''<br /> |'''umaʃkintɾotʃ-'''<br /> |'''immaʃkintɾodi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kajnaar''' &quot;jump&quot;<br /> |'''kajnaar-'''<br /> |'''akajnaan-'''<br /> |'''kajnerett-'''<br /> |'''kajnaalla-'''<br /> |'''ukajnaaruʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkajnaari-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys''' &quot;take care of&quot;<br /> |'''taldesyys-'''<br /> |'''ataldesyyn-'''<br /> |'''taldesyyst-'''<br /> |'''taldesyyll-'''<br /> |'''utaldesyyʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittaldesyysi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kota-'''<br /> |'''ankon-'''<br /> |'''kotatt-'''<br /> |'''kekolla-'''<br /> |'''ukotuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkoti-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussi-'''<br /> |'''ahsejn-'''<br /> |'''hust-'''<br /> |'''huzilla-'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ihusseji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''ken-''', '''kena-'''<br /> |'''angen-'''<br /> |'''kahett-'''<br /> |'''kenalla-''', '''kralla-'''<br /> |'''ukunuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkeni-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''mend''' &quot;become&quot;<br /> |'''mend-'''<br /> |'''amdan-'''<br /> |'''menett-'''<br /> |'''mendla-'''<br /> |'''umenduʃ-'''<br /> |'''immendi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustaj-''', '''ustaji-'''<br /> |'''anstajn-''', '''anstajin-'''<br /> |'''ustatt-''', '''ustitt-'''<br /> |'''ustalla-''', '''ustilla-'''<br /> |'''ustajuʃ-'''<br /> |'''istaji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''maj-'''<br /> |'''amann-'''<br /> |'''menett-'''<br /> |'''mjalla-'''<br /> |'''umujuʃ-'''<br /> |'''immaji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trak-'''<br /> |'''atrakan-'''<br /> |'''tetrakett-'''<br /> |'''ketralla-'''<br /> |'''utrakʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittraggi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''pakt''' &quot;understand&quot;<br /> |'''pakt-'''<br /> |'''ampakn-'''<br /> |'''pakett-'''<br /> |'''paktalla-'''<br /> |'''upaktuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ippakti-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''durʃin''' &quot;seem, appear&quot;<br /> |'''durʃin-'''<br /> |'''adurʃan-'''<br /> |'''durʃint-'''<br /> |'''durʃilla-'''<br /> |'''udurʃinʃ-'''<br /> |'''iddurʃini-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka''' &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |'''ʃaka-'''<br /> |'''aʃkan-'''<br /> |'''ʃakkatt-'''<br /> |'''ʃakalla-'''<br /> |'''uʃakkuʃ-'''<br /> |'''iʃakki-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kʃa''' [passive voice auxiliary]<br /> |'''kʃa-'''<br /> |'''akʃan-'''<br /> |'''kʃatt-'''<br /> |'''kʃalla-'''<br /> |'''ukʃuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkʃi-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The personal endings are : <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Present<br /> !Past<br /> !Future<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-sa'''<br /> |'''-os'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''-im'''<br /> |'''-mis'''<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''-ej'''<br /> |'''-jes'''<br /> |'''-oj'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''-ɔn'''<br /> |'''-sɔn'''<br /> |'''-on'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''-ib'''<br /> |'''-ips'''<br /> |'''-ob'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''-ɛw'''<br /> |'''-sɛw'''<br /> |'''-ow'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The following combinations of stem + ending set occur: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |Present<br /> |Past<br /> |Future<br /> |-<br /> |Generic<br /> !Simple <br /> Present<br /> !Habitual<br /> Past (&quot;used to&quot;)<br /> !Indefinite<br /> Future<br /> |-<br /> |Cursive<br /> !Present<br /> Continuous<br /> !Past <br /> Continuous<br /> !Future<br /> Progressive<br /> |-<br /> |Aorist<br /> |<br /> !Simple <br /> Past (Aorist)<br /> !Definite Future<br /> (Specific, Punctual)<br /> |-<br /> |Perfect<br /> !Present <br /> Perfect<br /> !Past<br /> Perfect<br /> !Future <br /> Perfect<br /> |-<br /> |Unrealised<br /> !Near <br /> Future<br /> !Unrealised <br /> Past (&quot;would&quot;)<br /> !Future <br /> (Remote) <br /> |-<br /> |Conditional <br /> !Conditional <br /> Present<br /> !Conditional <br /> Past<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> For the imperative, the base form of the verb is used. Optionally, the particle '''a''' can be used before the verb. Ex.: <br /> * '''Kaʃmal!''' / '''A kaʃmal!''' &quot;Take!&quot;<br /> * '''Hussi!''' / '''A hussi!''' &quot;Listen!&quot;<br /> * '''Spa kajnaar!''' / '''A spa kajnaar!''' &quot;Don't jump!&quot;<br /> <br /> While the formation of aspect stems is often irregular, the combination of stem + endings is usually quite regular and predictable. The usual epenthetic phonemes occur, mostly the semivowels ('''j''' and '''w'''), when two vowels come together, but these are more an artifact of speech and aren't usually indicated in writing. Ex.: <br /> * '''kaʃmallaus''', '''kaʃmallawus''' <br /> * '''kaʃmallaim''', '''kaʃmallajim''' <br /> * '''kaʃmallaej''', '''kaʃmallajej''', '''kaʃmallahej'''<br /> * '''kaʃmallaɔn''', '''kaʃmallawɔn''' <br /> * '''iggadriips''', '''iggadrijips'''<br /> * '''iggadrius''', '''iggadrijus'''<br /> * &amp;c.<br /> <br /> ==== Negative ====<br /> <br /> The infix '''-(i)nd-''', placed before the personal endings, makes a verb negative. Ex.: <br /> * '''landus''' &quot;I am not&quot;<br /> * '''lattindsɛw''' &quot;they weren't&quot;<br /> * '''hussindoj''' &quot;he/she won't listen&quot;<br /> * '''ateʃfanindips''' &quot;you weren't running away&quot;<br /> <br /> The emphatic negative particle '''spa''' may be used before the verb, always in the negative form. Ex.: <br /> * '''spa landus''' &quot;I am most certainly not&quot;<br /> * '''spa lattindsɛw''' &quot;they definitely weren't&quot;<br /> * '''spa hussindoj''' &quot;he/she will not listen at all&quot;<br /> * '''spa ateʃfanindips''' &quot;you really weren't running away&quot;<br /> <br /> This particle '''spa''' is also used in a negative command, with the base form of the verb. In that case, it doesn't necessarily have an emphatic meaning. Ex.: <br /> * '''Spa hussi!''' / '''A spa hussi!''' &quot;Don't listen!&quot;<br /> <br /> === Nominal Forms ===<br /> <br /> ==== Infinitive ==== <br /> <br /> The Dahur verb has infinitives for the Generic, Cursive, Aorist, Perfect and Unrealised aspects. They are formed by adding the ending '''-eh''' to the corresponding stem. The prefix '''u-''' of the Unrealised aspect is optional in the infinitive. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Generic<br /> !Cursive<br /> !Aorist<br /> !Perfect<br /> !Unrealised<br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmaleh'''<br /> |'''akʃmalaneh'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaletteh'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaeh'''<br /> |'''ukaʃmaluʃeh''', '''kaʃmaluʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''laeh'''<br /> |'''alaneh'''<br /> |'''latteh'''<br /> |'''lallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)lauʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadraeh'''<br /> |'''agandraneh'''<br /> |'''gadretteh'''<br /> |'''gadrallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)gadruʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kotaeh'''<br /> |'''ankoneh'''<br /> |'''kotatteh'''<br /> |'''kekollaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)kotuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussieh'''<br /> |'''ahsejneh'''<br /> |'''husteh'''<br /> |'''huzillaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)hussuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''keneh'''<br /> |'''angeneh'''<br /> |'''kahetteh'''<br /> |'''kenallaeh''', '''krallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)kunuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustajeh'''<br /> |'''anstajneh'''<br /> |'''ustatteh''', '''ustitteh'''<br /> |'''ustallaeh''', '''ustillaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)stajuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''majeh'''<br /> |'''amanneh'''<br /> |'''menetteh'''<br /> |'''mjallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)mujuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trakeh'''<br /> |'''atrakaneh'''<br /> |'''tetraketteh'''<br /> |'''ketrallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)trakʃeh'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The infinitive may be used as a noun, but also with certain auxiliary verbs. When a participle is used as a noun, usually the definite article may be omitted. Ex.: <br /> <br /> *'''(Tru) kotaeh laej suwani.''' / '''(Tru) kotaeh suwanjaej.''' &quot;Eating is good.&quot;<br /> <br /> ==== Participle ====<br /> Participles are built by adding specific suffixes to the corresponding stems of the verb: <br /> * '''-ur''' (active participle)<br /> * '''-ek''' (passive participle)<br /> <br /> The prefix '''u-''' of the unrealised stem is dropped.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Generic<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Cursive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Aorist<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmalur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalek'''<br /> |'''akʃmalanur'''<br /> |'''akʃmalanek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalettur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalettek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaur''', '''kaʃmallur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaek''', '''kaʃmallek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaluʃur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaluʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''laur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''alanur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lattur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lallaur''', '''lallur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lauʃur'''<br /> | <br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadraur'''<br /> |'''gadraek'''<br /> |'''agandranur'''<br /> |'''agandranek'''<br /> |'''gadrettur'''<br /> |'''gadrettek'''<br /> |'''gadrallur'''<br /> |'''gadrallek'''<br /> |'''gadruʃur'''<br /> |'''gadruʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kotaur'''<br /> |'''kotaek'''<br /> |'''ankonur'''<br /> |'''ankonek'''<br /> |'''kotattur'''<br /> |'''kotattek'''<br /> |'''kekollur'''<br /> |'''kekollek'''<br /> |'''kotuʃur'''<br /> |'''kotuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussiur'''<br /> |'''hussiek'''<br /> |'''ahsejnur'''<br /> |'''ahsejnek'''<br /> |'''hustur'''<br /> |'''hustek'''<br /> |'''huzillaur'''<br /> |'''huzillaek'''<br /> |'''hussuʃur'''<br /> |'''hussuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''kenur'''<br /> |'''kenek'''<br /> |'''angenur'''<br /> |'''angenek'''<br /> |'''kahettur'''<br /> |'''kahettek'''<br /> |'''kenallur''', '''krallur'''<br /> |'''kenallek''', '''krallek'''<br /> |'''kunuʃur'''<br /> |'''kunuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustajur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''anstajnur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustattur''', '''ustittur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustallur''', '''ustillek'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustajuʃur'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''majur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''amannur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''menettur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''mjallur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''mujuʃur'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trakur'''<br /> |'''trakek'''<br /> |'''atrakanur'''<br /> |'''atrakanek'''<br /> |'''tetrakettur'''<br /> |'''tetrakettek'''<br /> |'''ketrallur'''<br /> |'''ketrallek'''<br /> |'''trakʃur'''<br /> |'''trakʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka''' &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |'''ʃakaur'''<br /> |'''ʃakaek'''<br /> |'''aʃkanur'''<br /> |'''aʃkanek'''<br /> |'''ʃakkattur'''<br /> |'''ʃakkattek'''<br /> |'''ʃakallur'''<br /> |'''ʃakallek'''<br /> |'''ʃakkuʃur'''<br /> |'''ʃakkuʃek'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The corresponding negative versions of these participles are formed regularly with the suffix '''-(i)nd-'''. Ex.:<br /> * '''landur''' &quot;not being&quot;<br /> * '''angenindur''' &quot;not seeing&quot;<br /> * '''gradrettindek''' &quot;not written&quot;<br /> * '''ketrallindur''' &quot;who/which had not done&quot;<br /> * '''aʃkanindek''' &quot;which isn't being hunted&quot;<br /> <br /> === Passive Voice ===<br /> <br /> The passive voice is built with the auxiliary '''kʃa''', conjugated regularly, followed by the base form of the verb. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''akʃanus taldesyys''' &quot;I'm being taken care of&quot;<br /> * '''akʃanindmis ken''' &quot;you were not being seen&quot;<br /> * '''kʃallaɔn kaʃmal''' &quot;we have been taken&quot;<br /> * '''kʃattsɛw kota''' &quot;they were eaten&quot;<br /> * '''ikkʃindej trak''' &quot;if it's not done&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> === Conjugation ===<br /> Next you have a few verbs, conjugated in all its forms.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|Verb '''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Present<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Continuous <br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Perfect <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Near Future <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Present <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''laus'''<br /> |'''landus'''<br /> |'''alanus'''<br /> |'''alanindus'''<br /> |'''lallaus'''<br /> |'''lallandus'''<br /> |'''ulauʃus'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindus'''<br /> |'''illaius'''<br /> |'''illaindus'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''laim'''<br /> |'''landim'''<br /> |'''alanim'''<br /> |'''alanindim'''<br /> |'''lallaim'''<br /> |'''lallandim'''<br /> |'''ulauʃim'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindim'''<br /> |'''illaiim'''<br /> |'''illaindim'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''laej'''<br /> |'''landej'''<br /> |'''alanej'''<br /> |'''alanindej'''<br /> |'''lallaej'''<br /> |'''lallandej'''<br /> |'''ulauʃej'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindej'''<br /> |'''illaiej'''<br /> |'''illaindej'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''laɔn'''<br /> |'''landɔn'''<br /> |'''alanɔn'''<br /> |'''alanindɔn'''<br /> |'''lallaɔn'''<br /> |'''lallandɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindɔn'''<br /> |'''illaiɔn'''<br /> |'''illaindɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laib'''<br /> |'''landib'''<br /> |'''alanib'''<br /> |'''alanindib'''<br /> |'''lallaib'''<br /> |'''lallandib'''<br /> |'''ulauʃib'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindib'''<br /> |'''illaiib'''<br /> |'''illaindib'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''laɛw'''<br /> |'''landɛw'''<br /> |'''alanɛw'''<br /> |'''alanindɛw'''<br /> |'''lallaɛw'''<br /> |'''lallandɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindɛw'''<br /> |'''illaiɛw'''<br /> |'''illaindɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Habitual Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Continuous <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Past <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Past <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''lasa'''<br /> |'''landsa'''<br /> |'''alansa'''<br /> |'''alanindsa'''<br /> |'''lattsa'''<br /> |'''lattindsa'''<br /> |'''lallasa'''<br /> |'''lallandsa'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsa'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsa'''<br /> |'''illaisa'''<br /> |'''illaindsa'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''lamis'''<br /> |'''landmis'''<br /> |'''alanmis'''<br /> |'''alanindmis'''<br /> |'''lattmis'''<br /> |'''lattindmis'''<br /> |'''lallamis'''<br /> |'''lallandmis'''<br /> |'''ulauʃmis'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindmis'''<br /> |'''illaimis'''<br /> |'''illaindmis'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''lajes'''<br /> |'''landjes'''<br /> |'''alanjes'''<br /> |'''alanindjes'''<br /> |'''lattjes'''<br /> |'''lattindjes'''<br /> |'''lallajes'''<br /> |'''lallandjes'''<br /> |'''ulauʃjes'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindjes'''<br /> |'''illaijes'''<br /> |'''illaindjes'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''lasɔn'''<br /> |'''landsɔn'''<br /> |'''alansɔn'''<br /> |'''alanindsɔn'''<br /> |'''lattsɔn'''<br /> |'''lattindsɔn'''<br /> |'''lallasɔn'''<br /> |'''lallandsɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsɔn'''<br /> |'''illaisɔn'''<br /> |'''illaiindsɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laips'''<br /> |'''landips'''<br /> |'''alanips'''<br /> |'''alanindips'''<br /> |'''lattips'''<br /> |'''lattindips'''<br /> |'''lallaips'''<br /> |'''lallandips'''<br /> |'''ulauʃips'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindips'''<br /> |'''illaiips'''<br /> |'''illaindips'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''lasɛw'''<br /> |'''landsɛw'''<br /> |'''alansɛw'''<br /> |'''alanindsɛw'''<br /> |'''lattsɛw'''<br /> |'''lattindsɛw'''<br /> |'''lallasɛw'''<br /> |'''lallandsɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsɛw'''<br /> |'''illaisɛw'''<br /> |'''illaindsɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Indefinite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Progressive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Definite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Remote Future<br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''laos'''<br /> |'''landos'''<br /> |'''alanos'''<br /> |'''alanindos'''<br /> |'''lattos'''<br /> |'''lattindos'''<br /> |'''lallaos'''<br /> |'''lallandos'''<br /> |'''ulauʃos'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindos'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''laom'''<br /> |'''landom'''<br /> |'''alanom'''<br /> |'''alanindom'''<br /> |'''lattom'''<br /> |'''lattindom'''<br /> |'''lallaom'''<br /> |'''lallandom'''<br /> |'''ulauʃom'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindom'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''laoj'''<br /> |'''landoj'''<br /> |'''alanoj'''<br /> |'''alanindoj'''<br /> |'''lattoj'''<br /> |'''lattindoj'''<br /> |'''lallaoj'''<br /> |'''lallandoj'''<br /> |'''ulauʃoj'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindoj'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''laon'''<br /> |'''landon'''<br /> |'''alanon'''<br /> |'''alanindon'''<br /> |'''latton'''<br /> |'''lattindon'''<br /> |'''lallaon'''<br /> |'''lallandon'''<br /> |'''ulauʃon'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindon'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laob'''<br /> |'''landob'''<br /> |'''alanob'''<br /> |'''alanindob'''<br /> |'''lattob'''<br /> |'''lattindob'''<br /> |'''lallaob'''<br /> |'''lallandob'''<br /> |'''ulauʃob'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindob'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''laow'''<br /> |'''landow'''<br /> |'''alanow'''<br /> |'''alanindow'''<br /> |'''lattow'''<br /> |'''lattindow'''<br /> |'''lallaow'''<br /> |'''lallandow'''<br /> |'''ulauʃow'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindow'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|Verb '''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Present<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Continuous <br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Perfect <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Near Future <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Present <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussius'''<br /> |'''hussindus'''<br /> |'''ahsejnus'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindus'''<br /> |'''huzillaus'''<br /> |'''huzillandus'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃus'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindus'''<br /> |'''ihussejius'''<br /> |'''ihussejindus'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussiim'''<br /> |'''hussindim'''<br /> |'''ahsejnim'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindim'''<br /> |'''huzillaim'''<br /> |'''huzillandim'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃim'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindim'''<br /> |'''ihussejiim'''<br /> |'''ihussejindim'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussije'''<br /> |'''hussindje'''<br /> |'''ahsejnje'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindje'''<br /> |'''huzillaje'''<br /> |'''huzillandje'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃje'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindje'''<br /> |'''ihussejije'''<br /> |'''ihussejindje'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussiɔn'''<br /> |'''hussindɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillaɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillandɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejiɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejindɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiib'''<br /> |'''hussindib'''<br /> |'''ahsejnib'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindib'''<br /> |'''huzillaib'''<br /> |'''huzillandib'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃib'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindib'''<br /> |'''ihussejiib'''<br /> |'''ihussejindib'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussiɛw'''<br /> |'''hussindɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillaɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillandɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejiɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejindɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Habitual Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Continuous <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Past <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Past <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussisa'''<br /> |'''hussindsa'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsa'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsa'''<br /> |'''hustsa'''<br /> |'''hustindsa'''<br /> |'''huzillasa'''<br /> |'''huzillandsa'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsa'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsa'''<br /> |'''ihussejisa'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsa'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussimis'''<br /> |'''hussindmis'''<br /> |'''ahsejnmis'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindmis'''<br /> |'''hustmis'''<br /> |'''hustindmis'''<br /> |'''huzillamis'''<br /> |'''huzillandmis'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃmis'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindmis'''<br /> |'''ihussejimis'''<br /> |'''ihussejindmis'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussijes'''<br /> |'''hussindjes'''<br /> |'''ahsejnjes'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindjes'''<br /> |'''hustjes'''<br /> |'''hustindjes'''<br /> |'''huzillajes'''<br /> |'''huzillandjes'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃjes'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindjes'''<br /> |'''ihussejijes'''<br /> |'''ihussejindjes'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussisɔn'''<br /> |'''hussindsɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsɔn'''<br /> |'''hustsɔn'''<br /> |'''hustindsɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillasɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillandsɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejisɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiips'''<br /> |'''hussindips'''<br /> |'''ahsejnips'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindips'''<br /> |'''hustips'''<br /> |'''hustindips'''<br /> |'''huzillaips'''<br /> |'''huzillandips'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃips'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindips'''<br /> |'''ihussejiips'''<br /> |'''ihussejindips'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussisɛw'''<br /> |'''hussindsɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsɛw'''<br /> |'''hustsɛw'''<br /> |'''hustindsɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillasɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillandsɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejisɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Indefinite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Progressive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Definite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Remote Future<br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussios'''<br /> |'''hussindos'''<br /> |'''ahsejnos'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindos'''<br /> |'''hustos'''<br /> |'''hustindos'''<br /> |'''huzillaos'''<br /> |'''huzillandos'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃos'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindos'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussiom'''<br /> |'''hussindom'''<br /> |'''ahsejnom'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindom'''<br /> |'''hustom'''<br /> |'''hustindom'''<br /> |'''huzillaom'''<br /> |'''huzillandom'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃom'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindom'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussioj'''<br /> |'''hussindoj'''<br /> |'''ahsejnoj'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindoj'''<br /> |'''hustoj'''<br /> |'''hustindoj'''<br /> |'''huzillaoj'''<br /> |'''huzillandoj'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃoj'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindoj'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussion'''<br /> |'''hussindon'''<br /> |'''ahsejnon'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindon'''<br /> |'''huston'''<br /> |'''hustindon'''<br /> |'''huzillaon'''<br /> |'''huzillandon'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃon'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindon'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiob'''<br /> |'''hussindob'''<br /> |'''ahsejnob'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindob'''<br /> |'''hustob'''<br /> |'''hustindob'''<br /> |'''huzillaob'''<br /> |'''huzillandob'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃob'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindob'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussiow'''<br /> |'''hussindow'''<br /> |'''ahsejnow'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindow'''<br /> |'''hustow'''<br /> |'''hustindow'''<br /> |'''huzillaow'''<br /> |'''huzillandow'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃow'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindow'''<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Incorporation ===<br /> Besides complementing a verb with a noun phrase in the accusative (or some other) case, complements may be incorporated in the verb. This resource is particularly common with more frequent verb + complement combinations. Common verbs, especially indicating more fundamental actions such as &quot;eat&quot;, &quot;drink&quot;, &quot;take&quot;, &quot;speak&quot;, &quot;make&quot;, &quot;kill&quot; &amp;c. are more prone to this type of constructions, while more abstract verbs, as well as less frequently used verbs, tend to follow the more conventional verb + complement approach. <br /> <br /> When a complement is incorporated to a verb, it receives the prefix '''s-''' and is placed before the verb root. Irregularities are not uncommon. <br /> Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Regular Construction<br /> !Incorporation<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota ʃøga'''<br /> |'''sʃøgkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat meat&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota dabasa'''<br /> |'''sdabaskota'''<br /> |&quot;eat bread&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota drupala'''<br /> |'''sdrupalkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat vegetables&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota pinim'''<br /> |'''spinimkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat fruit&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''twiʃin halajna'''<br /> |'''shalantwiʃin'''<br /> |&quot;drink water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''twiʃin myndra'''<br /> |'''smyndtwiʃin'''<br /> |&quot;drink alcoholic beverage&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys menira'''<br /> |'''smeniraldesyys'''<br /> |&quot;take care of a child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys apsala'''<br /> |'''sapsaldesyys'''<br /> |&quot;take care of everything&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi tuglaa'''<br /> |'''stuglussi'''<br /> |&quot;hear a noise&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka pœrakʃa'''<br /> |'''spœrakʃaka'''<br /> |&quot;hunt a beast&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak tilmara'''<br /> |'''stilmatrak'''<br /> |&quot;make a mistake&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> =Word Formation=<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> !Examples<br /> |-<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |agent, doer, -er<br /> |'''ballast''' &quot;to study&quot; ⇒ '''ballastɛv''' &quot;student&quot;<br /> '''pɾujn''' &quot;to paint&quot; ⇒ '''pɾujnɛv''' &quot;painter&quot;&lt;br/&gt;<br /> '''egast''' &quot;to farm&quot; ⇒ '''egastɛv''' &quot;farmer&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |'''-'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-''' &quot;&quot; ⇒ '''-''' &quot;&quot;<br /> '''-''' &quot;&quot; ⇒ '''-''' &quot;&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-''' &quot;&quot; ⇒ '''-''' &quot;&quot;<br /> '''-''' &quot;&quot; ⇒ '''-''' &quot;&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-''' &quot;&quot; ⇒ '''-''' &quot;&quot;<br /> '''-''' &quot;&quot; ⇒ '''-''' &quot;&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-''' &quot;&quot; ⇒ '''-''' &quot;&quot;<br /> '''-''' &quot;&quot; ⇒ '''-''' &quot;&quot;<br /> <br /> |}</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Conlangs&diff=5385 Conlangs 2026-10-11T13:06:44Z <p>Panglossa: /* Sing and related languages */</p> <hr /> <div>{{RightTOC}}<br /> =Drion=<br /> ==Nekturian==<br /> *[[/Proto-Nekturian/]]<br /> **Center-West Nekturian<br /> ***[[/Tláymyts/]]<br /> ***[[/Hebnet/]]<br /> ***[[/Nerak/]]<br /> **North Nekturian<br /> ***[[/Efhang/]]<br /> ***[[/Wayal/]]<br /> **East Nekturian<br /> ***[[/Ketgat/]]<br /> ***[[/Neshtak/]]<br /> **South Nekturian<br /> ***[[/Bovon/]]<br /> ***[[/Takarash/]]<br /> <br /> ==Arishian==<br /> *[[/Macro-Arish/]]<br /> **[[/Proto-Arish|Arish Proper/]]<br /> ***[[/South Arishian/]]<br /> ****[[/Old Handun/]]<br /> *****'''[[/Classical Handun/]]'''<br /> ******'''[[/Modern Handun/]]'''<br /> *****[[/Hentif/]]<br /> ****[[/Old Hennesad/]]<br /> *****[[/Modern Hennesad/]]<br /> *****[[/Katif/]]<br /> *****[[/Tahlud/]]<br /> ***[[/West Arishian/]]<br /> ****[[/Old Khib-renn/]]<br /> *****[[/New Khib-renn/]]<br /> *****[[/Yansur/]]<br /> ****[[/Old Panyuk/]]<br /> *****[[/Classical Panyuk/]]<br /> *****[[/Pabdil/]]<br /> ***[[/East Arishian/]]<br /> ****[[/Old Halton/]]<br /> *****[[/Classical Halton/]]<br /> ******[[/New Halton/]]<br /> ******[[/Haysilad/]]<br /> ****[[/Tsheftshi/]]<br /> ****[[/Piktol/]]<br /> ***[[/North Arishian/]]<br /> ****[[/Garuk-B/]]<br /> **[[/Tropek/]]<br /> ***[[/Difaron/]]<br /> ***[[/Posper/]]<br /> ***[[/Hehelid/]]<br /> **[[/Proto-Ansuf/]]<br /> ***[[/Tastalid/]]<br /> ***[[/South Ansuf/]]<br /> ****[[/Usinar/]]<br /> *****[[/Tol/]]<br /> *****[[/Bunyad/]]<br /> ****[[/Hahneng/]]<br /> ****[[/Kyef/]]<br /> ***[[/North Ansuf/]]<br /> ****[[/Sipsip/]]<br /> ****[[/Minter/]]<br /> <br /> ==Sing and related languages==<br /> *[[/Macro-Sing|Macro-Sing Family]]<br /> **[[/Proto-Sing/]]<br /> ***[[/Classical Sing/]]<br /> ****[[/Modern Sing/]]<br /> ****[[/To-pi/]]<br /> ****May-fey<br /> ****Tsho-har-sey<br /> ***Classical Prang<br /> ****Prang<br /> ****We-wer<br /> ***Old Mekh<br /> ****Kimb<br /> ****Tre-yet<br /> ****Modern Mekh<br /> **Proto-Amrub<br /> ***Classical Amrub<br /> ****Modern Amrub<br /> ****Bigney<br /> ****Ho-pro<br /> ****Kon-tay<br /> **Tsheken<br /> ***Pa-gess<br /> **Pasel<br /> ***Gingan<br /> ***Wep-wep<br /> **Puy<br /> <br /> ==Nyewere' Languages==<br /> *[[/Proto-Nyewere'/]]<br /> **[[/North Nyewere'/]]<br /> ***[[/Batet/]]<br /> ***[[/Sungil/]]<br /> ***[[/Deter/]]<br /> ***[[/Towahula/]]<br /> **South Nyewere'<br /> ***Patkassi<br /> ****Hojowana<br /> ****Pron<br /> ***Umba<br /> ****Gtefe<br /> ****Hutalis<br /> ***Tele<br /> **Central Nyewere'<br /> ***Tochafala<br /> ****East Tochafala<br /> *****Kwakwa<br /> *****Jibshen<br /> ****West Tochafala<br /> *****Pondeng<br /> ***Sidinaya<br /> ***Sidikensa<br /> ***Malissindi<br /> **Toganish<br /> ***Kassassi<br /> <br /> ==Trokteret Languages==<br /> Regarding phonology and internal structure of the languages, this family is similar to the Caucasian languages of Earth.<br /> *Trugtshembef<br /> **Pagpag<br /> **Ahtlmbef<br /> **PiksntR<br /> *Perkiss<br /> *KMp-SSftil<br /> *Glokmsfal<br /> **Hesh-hash<br /> ***Taklafstar<br /> *Tshepkntris<br /> <br /> ==Isolates==<br /> *'''[[/Ravumi/]]''' (Sukika)<br /> *'''[[/Dahur/]]'''<br /> *[[/Garuk-A/]]<br /> *[[/Atudab/]]<br /> *[[/Nardronian/]]<br /> <br /> =Dremhila=<br /> ==Plane 2==<br /> *Group I<br /> **[[/Arslin/]]<br /> **[[/Howén/]]<br /> *Group II<br /> **[[/Do-Yang/]]<br /> **[[/Otrabit/]]<br /> **[[/He-Sall/]]<br /> *Group III<br /> **[[/Nefni/]]<br /> **[[/Pahresh/]]<br /> *Group IV<br /> **[[/Kaus-chin/]]<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> [[Category:Conlangs]]</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Conlangs/Dahur&diff=5384 Conlangs/Dahur 2026-09-13T02:00:11Z <p>Panglossa: /* Comparative */</p> <hr /> <div>{{DISPLAYTITLE:Dahur}}<br /> {{RightTOC}}<br /> =Phonology=<br /> <br /> ==Vowels==<br /> <br /> Dahur vowels are usually short. Double vowels (ex.: aa, ee &amp;c.) may happen, but they are considered as simple vowel sequences.<br /> <br /> The following vowels qualities are distinguished: <br /> <br /> '''a''' '''e''' '''ɛ''' '''i''' '''o''' '''ɔ''' '''ø''' '''œ''' '''u''' '''y'''<br /> <br /> The diagram below shows the 10 vowels of Dahur.<br /> <br /> [[File:dahurvowels.png|link=]]<br /> <br /> In practice, the vowel /a/ may actually vary between /a/, /ä/ and /ɑ/.<br /> <br /> Merging of /ø/ and /œ/ is fairly common, especially in more informal contexts, as these two vowels mostly don't occur as minimal pair (except in a couple cases).<br /> <br /> ==Consonants==<br /> <br /> Dahur consonants are as follows: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;border-width:0px&quot;|<br /> !Bilabial<br /> !Labiodental<br /> !Alveolar<br /> !Postalveolar<br /> !Palatal<br /> !Velar<br /> !Glottal<br /> |-<br /> !Nasal<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''m'''<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''n'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Plosive<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''p''' '''b'''<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''t''' '''d'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''k''' '''g'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Sibilant fricative<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''s''' '''z'''<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''ʃ''' '''ʒ''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Non-sibilant fricative<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''f''' '''v''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''h'''<br /> |-<br /> !Approximant<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''j'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Tap/Flap/Trill<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''ɾ''' '''r''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Lateral Approx.<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''l'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The rhotic consonant ('''r''') is in free variation and may be realised either as a tap, a flap or a trill. The trill pronunciation (/r/) is more common at the beginning of a syllable, and even more so at the beginning of a word. The tap/flap pronunciation (/ɾ/) is more common in consonant clusters, especially after a plosive. <br /> <br /> In Dahur phonology, the combinations '''tr''' and '''kʃ''' count as single, independent consonants.<br /> <br /> ==Phonotactics==<br /> A syllable in Dahur must contain one vowel, which may be preceded and/or followed by any number of consonants. In practice, consonant clusters don't usually go beyond four consonants. For that account, '''kʃ''' and '''tɾ''' are always considered as single consonants. <br /> <br /> All consonant sequences are possible. However, in practice, some consonant combinations (ex. '''-hm-''', '''-tɾkʃ-''' &amp;c.) are rare.<br /> <br /> Some studies consider the existence of a glottal stop when a proper consonant is absent. This view is reflected in the writing, which has a special sign for the glottal stop / lack of a consonant. The last consonant of a syllable can be doubled. <br /> <br /> Examples of valid syllables: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''a'''<br /> | '''tɛ'''<br /> | '''en'''<br /> | '''wi'''<br /> | '''koj'''<br /> | '''gjɔ'''<br /> | '''pɾujn'''<br /> | '''kʃtɾa'''<br /> | '''fʃtlœmbz'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Stress==<br /> In the standard pronunciation, words are stressed on the next-to-last syllable. However, if the last syllable contains the consonant /tɾ/, it will be stressed.<br /> <br /> Ex.:<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''&lt;u&gt;ka&lt;/u&gt;nar''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/ˈka.nar/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''os&lt;u&gt;trøn&lt;/u&gt;dɛl''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/os.ˈtɾøn.dɛl/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''&lt;u&gt;tef&lt;/u&gt;ʃiv''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/ˈtef.ʃiv/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''da&lt;u&gt;sutɾ&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/daˈsutɾ/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''maʃkin&lt;u&gt;tɾod&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/maʃ.kinˈtɾod/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Doubled vowels in the last syllable may sound as a long, stressed vowel; however, they are actually two separate vowels, each one in a different syllable, with stress falling on the first one (or on the last, in case that syllable contains the consonant '''tr'''). It is not uncommon to hear an epenthetic '''h''', '''j''' or '''w''' between the two vowels.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kaj&lt;u&gt;na&lt;/u&gt;ar''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/kaj.ˈna.ar/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/kaj.ˈna.har/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> | '''pakisa&lt;u&gt;atr&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/pa.ki.sa.ˈatr/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/pa.ki.sa.ˈhatr/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> | '''tøndel&lt;u&gt;li&lt;/u&gt;in''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.in/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.jin/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.hin/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''talde&lt;u&gt;sy&lt;/u&gt;ys''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tal.de.ˈsy.ys/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tal.de.ˈsy.hys/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =Writing=<br /> <br /> [[Dahur script]] consists in an alphasyllabary consisting in separate letters indicating consonants, a combination of separate letters and diacritics to indicate vowels, as well as certain special letters for individual syllables.<br /> <br /> =Morphology=<br /> <br /> Dahur is a highly flexional language, with a strong presence of irregular forms.<br /> <br /> Nouns inflect for number, which is basically singular and plural, but there are also occurrences of dual (for things normally occurring in pairs) and singulative (for individual items of things usually found collectively). <br /> <br /> Nouns also inflect for case, usually: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, locative, instrumental, ergative and ablative. Instances of partitive and vocative are also found. The case called ergative is used basically for the agent of the passive voice.<br /> <br /> Adjectives show no agreement to nouns, and inflect for degree (comparatives of superiority, equality, inferiority; relative and absolute superlative).<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Nouns==<br /> <br /> <br /> === Class ===<br /> <br /> Dahurian nouns are divided in five classes, which can be compared to Latin or Greek declensions, as they consist in different inflection patterns, but may also be seen as a form of gender, as class is usually (but not always necessarily) related to the meaning of a noun. <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class 1<br /> |Living beings<br /> |-<br /> !Class 2<br /> |General objects<br /> |-<br /> !Class 3<br /> |Natural elements; insects<br /> |-<br /> !Class 4<br /> |Parts of human body; clothing<br /> |-<br /> !Class 5<br /> |Abstract nouns; traditional imaginary beings<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There are no morphological indications related to noun classes in the nominative singular. The differences appear along the inflection of nouns.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Number ===<br /> Nouns in Dahur have a singular and a plural. The plural ending varies according to noun class and to case. There is also a dual number, which is valid only for nouns normally occurring in pairs. Mass or collective nouns have a singulative inflection, but this is not very systematically indicated.<br /> <br /> <br /> So, for example:<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> !Dual<br /> !Singulative<br /> |-<br /> |class 1<br /> |'''grats'''<br /> &quot;boy&quot;<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> &quot;boys&quot;<br /> | -<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 2<br /> |'''kɛʃev'''<br /> &quot;hammer&quot;<br /> |'''kɛʃevlin'''<br /> &quot;hammers&quot;<br /> |'''kɛʃevs'''<br /> &quot;pair of hammers&quot; (traditionally used by blacksmiths)<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 3<br /> |'''halajn'''<br /> &quot;water&quot;<br /> |'''halejnn'''<br /> &quot;waters&quot; (i.e. in a flood)<br /> |'''halajns'''<br /> &quot;The Two Waters&quot; (the river Okanuma and the lake Kassanjas)<br /> |'''halajny'''<br /> &quot;a drop of water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |class 4<br /> |'''kanar'''<br /> &quot;eye&quot;<br /> |'''kanarni'''<br /> &quot;many eyes&quot; (mostly figuratively)<br /> |'''kanaris'''<br /> &quot;(two/both) eyes&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 4<br /> |'''kʃalim'''<br /> &quot;hair&quot;<br /> |'''kʃalimni'''<br /> &quot;(types of) hair&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |'''kʃalimy'''<br /> &quot;a (single) hair&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |class 5<br /> |'''astrønɛl'''<br /> &quot;idea&quot;<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> &quot;ideas&quot;<br /> |'''astrønɛls'''<br /> &quot;a couple ideas&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The plural in classes 1, 2 and 5 is usually regular, obtained with the respective suffixes ('''-en''', '''-lin''', '''-jan'''). <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 1<br /> |'''katlaj'''<br /> &quot;girlfriend&quot;<br /> |'''katlajen'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''dukʃatr'''<br /> &quot;boss&quot;<br /> |'''dukʃatren'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''egastɛv'''<br /> &quot;farmer&quot;<br /> |'''egastɛven'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 2<br /> |'''takoj'''<br /> &quot;pin&quot;<br /> |'''takojlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''uhpsan'''<br /> &quot;paper&quot;<br /> |'''uhpsanlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''dasutr'''<br /> &quot;document, file&quot;<br /> |'''dasutrlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 5<br /> |'''pɛktegal'''<br /> &quot;angel&quot;<br /> |'''pɛktegaljan'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ostrøndɛl'''<br /> &quot;interruption&quot;<br /> |'''ostrøndɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''piktaraʃ'''<br /> &quot;problem&quot;<br /> |'''piktaraʃjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In classes 3 and 4, besides the suffixes ('''-n''', '''-ni'''), most nouns suffer some sort of mutation, usually affecting only one vowel but non uncommonly consisting of more significative changes.<br /> <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 3<br /> |'''pakpaki'''<br /> &quot;louse&quot;<br /> |'''pakpɛkin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''pahalis'''<br /> &quot;leaf&quot;<br /> |'''pahaljen'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''tʃeptal'''<br /> &quot;cloud&quot;<br /> |'''tʃapatlin''', '''tʃaptlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 4<br /> |'''kraus'''<br /> &quot;ear&quot;<br /> |'''krojsni'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ɛmblew'''<br /> &quot;hat&quot;<br /> |'''ɛmbalni'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''krikter'''<br /> &quot;helmet&quot;<br /> |'''kruktni'''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Case ===<br /> Dahur nouns inflect for the following cases: <br /> * '''nominative''' (subject, predicative)<br /> * '''accusative''' (direct object, motion towards)<br /> * '''dative''' (indirect object)<br /> * '''genitive''' (possession, partitive, origin)<br /> * '''locative''' (location, placement)<br /> * '''instrumental''' (instrument, means, company)<br /> * '''ablative''' (adverbial)<br /> * '''ergative''' (agent of the passive voice)<br /> <br /> All cases except the nominative and the ergative can be used with prepositions.<br /> <br /> Certain nouns, mostly nouns indicating human beings, also show a vocative form, mostly formed with the ending '''-e''', but usually irregular. <br /> <br /> Certain nouns, for example nouns indicating mass or food, show a partitive case, usually formed with the ending '''-(i)t'''. <br /> <br /> <br /> === Inflection ===<br /> <br /> Noun declension in Dahur is quite regular, in terms of case and the less usual numbers, viz. the dual and the singulative.<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 1<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 2<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 3<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 4<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 5<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''-'''<br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-en'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-lin'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-n'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-is'''<br /> |'''-ni'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-an'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-lajn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-an'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-jas'''<br /> |'''-nja'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-un'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-lun'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-wan'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-ujs'''<br /> |'''-nu'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-ujn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''-ak'''<br /> |'''-ask'''<br /> |'''-ken'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ik'''<br /> |'''-isk'''<br /> |'''-link'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-aʃ'''<br /> |'''-ʃas'''<br /> |'''-ʃan'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-iʃ'''<br /> |'''-siʃ'''<br /> |'''-niʃ'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ik'''<br /> |'''-isk'''<br /> |'''-jank'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-emb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-limb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-emb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-bis'''<br /> |'''-nibb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-jamb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-nom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-lom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-nom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-joms'''<br /> |'''-njom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-njom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-nɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-lɛnv''', '''-lɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-nɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-jɛfs'''<br /> |'''-njɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-njɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-løtr'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-sjøtr'''<br /> |'''-trøjn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøjn'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> &lt;!---<br /> * The '''nominative''' case is the basic form of nouns.<br /> * The '''accusative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-a'''. <br /> * The '''dative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-si'''.<br /> * The '''genitive''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ak''' for animate intelligent beings, '''-iʃ''' for animals, '''-is''' for concrete objects and '''-ɔn''' for abstract things.<br /> * The '''locative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-us'''. With animate nouns, the locative can mean &quot;on&quot;, or &quot;with&quot;, as in &quot;carrying with&quot;. <br /> * The '''instrumental''' case is indicated by the enging '''-em''' for animate intelligent beings, '''-om''' for animals, '''-um''' for things.<br /> * The '''ergative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-øtr'''. <br /> * The '''ablative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ɛv'''. <br /> --&gt;<br /> <br /> When an ending starting with a vowel is applied, a final '''-i''' becomes '''-j-''', and a final '''-u''' becomes '''-w-'''; otherwise, an '''-h-''' is added. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''dula''' &quot;babysitter&quot;, '''dulahen''' &quot;babysitters&quot;<br /> * '''agdari''' &quot;prisoner&quot;, '''agdarjen''' &quot;prisoners&quot;<br /> * '''pakpaki''' &quot;louse&quot;, '''pakpakja''' &quot;louse (accus.)&quot;, '''pakpakjaʃ''' &quot;of a louse&quot;, '''pakpakjom''' &quot;by a louse&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> In the following tables, you have some examples of nouns of the various classes, fully inflected for number and case.<br /> <br /> * Class 1: '''grats''' &quot;boy&quot; <br /> * Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' &quot;hammer&quot; <br /> * Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' &quot;cloud&quot; <br /> * Class 4: '''kraus''' &quot;ear&quot; <br /> * Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' &quot;idea&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 1: '''grats''' &quot;boy&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''grats'''<br /> |'''gratss'''<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''gratsa'''<br /> |'''gratsas'''<br /> |'''gratsan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''gratsu'''<br /> |'''gratsus'''<br /> |'''gratsun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''gratsak'''<br /> |'''gratsask'''<br /> |'''gratsken'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''gratsebb'''<br /> |'''gratseps'''<br /> |'''gratsemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''gratsom'''<br /> |'''gratsoms'''<br /> |'''gratsnom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''gratsɛv'''<br /> |'''gratsɛfs'''<br /> |'''gratsnɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''gratsøtr'''<br /> |'''gratssøtr'''<br /> |'''gratsetrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Vocative<br /> |'''gratse'''<br /> |'''gratses'''<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' &quot;hammer&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''kɛʃev'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevs'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlin'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''kɛʃeva'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevas'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlajn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''kɛʃevu'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevus'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''kɛʃevik'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevisk'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlink'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''kɛʃevebb'''<br /> |'''kɛʃeveps'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlimb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''kɛʃevom'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevoms'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''kɛʃevɛv'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevɛfs'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlɛnv''', '''kɛʃevlɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''kɛʃevøtr'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevsøtr'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevløtr'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' &quot;cloud&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''tʃeptal'''<br /> |'''tʃeptals'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlin'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''tʃeptala'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalas'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlijan''', '''tʃaptljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''tʃeptalu'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalus'''<br /> |'''tʃaptliwan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''tʃeptalaʃ'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalʃas'''<br /> |'''tʃaptliʃan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''tʃeptalebb'''<br /> |'''tʃeptaleps'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlijemb''', '''tʃaptljemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''tʃeptalom'''<br /> |'''tʃeptaloms'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlinom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''tʃeptalɛv'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalɛfs'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlinɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''tʃeptaløtr'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalsøtr'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlitrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''tʃeptalt'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalts'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlint'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 4: '''kraus''' &quot;ear&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''kraus'''<br /> |'''krausis'''<br /> |'''krojsni'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''krausa'''<br /> |'''krausjas'''<br /> |'''krojsnja'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''krausu'''<br /> |'''krausujs'''<br /> |'''krojsnu'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''krausiʃ'''<br /> |'''kraussiʃ'''<br /> |'''krojsniʃ'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''krausebb'''<br /> |'''krauseps'''<br /> |'''krojsnibb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''krausom'''<br /> |'''krausoms'''<br /> |'''krojsnjom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''krausɛv'''<br /> |'''krausɛfs'''<br /> |'''krojsnjɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''krausøtr'''<br /> |'''krausjøtr'''<br /> |'''krojstrøjn'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' &quot;idea&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''astrønɛls'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''astrønɛla'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlas'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''astrønɛlu'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlus'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlujn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''astrønɛlik'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlisk'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljank'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''astrønɛlebb'''<br /> |'''astrønɛleps'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljamb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''astrønɛlom'''<br /> |'''astrønɛloms'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlnjom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''astrønɛlɛv'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlɛfs'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlnjɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''astrønɛløtr'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlsøtr'''<br /> |'''astrønɛltrøjn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''astrønɛlt'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlts'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljant'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Articles ==<br /> <br /> === Definite Article === <br /> <br /> The definite article inflects for case and number, and is quite irregular. <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> !Singulative <br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''tru'''<br /> |'''gas'''<br /> |'''tann'''<br /> |'''try'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''na'''<br /> |'''ga'''<br /> |'''ta'''<br /> |'''ny'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''kʃu'''<br /> |'''gu'''<br /> |'''tun'''<br /> |'''kʃu'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''kis'''<br /> |'''gak'''<br /> |'''tak'''<br /> |'''kis'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''debb'''<br /> |'''gebb'''<br /> |'''tebb'''<br /> |'''debb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''trom'''<br /> |'''gom'''<br /> |'''tom'''<br /> |'''trom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative <br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |'''gɛv'''<br /> |'''tɛv'''<br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''trø'''<br /> |'''gøtr'''<br /> |'''tøtr'''<br /> |'''trø'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Indefinite Article === <br /> <br /> Dahur has no proper indefinite article. <br /> <br /> If it's really necessary to mark a noun phrase as indefinite, an indefinite pronoun may be used. The most common is '''lum''' (invariable), meaning &quot;some&quot;, &quot;a certain&quot; &amp;c.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Prepositions ==<br /> <br /> Prepositions in Dahur require the noun in one of the following cases: <br /> <br /> * accusative<br /> * dative<br /> * genitive<br /> * ablative<br /> * instrumental<br /> * locative<br /> <br /> The nominative and the ergative are '''never''' used with prepositions. <br /> <br /> In the table below you have the most common Dahur prepositions: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Preposition<br /> !Case<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''dun'''<br /> |''locative'', ''accusative of movement''<br /> |inside<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''yin'''<br /> |''dative''<br /> |for, in behalf of<br /> |-<br /> |''accusative''<br /> |towards<br /> |-<br /> |'''ari''', '''ar'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |from, out of<br /> |-<br /> |'''yuʃ'''<br /> |''genitive'', ''ablative''<br /> |because of<br /> |-<br /> |'''vøj'''<br /> |''locative''<br /> |through<br /> |-<br /> |'''syn'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |near<br /> |-<br /> |'''kʃe'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |since, ago<br /> |-<br /> |'''pɛn'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |besides, next to<br /> |-<br /> |'''lujg'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |in front of<br /> |-<br /> |'''mœh'''<br /> |''ablative''<br /> |without<br /> |-<br /> |'''sto'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |on, on top of<br /> |-<br /> |'''krɔj'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |under<br /> |-<br /> |'''tjɛs'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |before (time)<br /> |-<br /> |'''gwaj'''<br /> |''accusative''<br /> |after (time)<br /> |-<br /> |'''fyj'''<br /> |''ablative''<br /> |during<br /> |-<br /> |'''vlen'''<br /> |''instrumental''<br /> |despite<br /> |-<br /> |'''uhk'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |except<br /> |-<br /> |'''uzd'''<br /> |''dative''<br /> |instead of<br /> |-<br /> |'''blas'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |behind<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> * '''yin na hedana''' &quot;towards the house&quot;<br /> * '''dun na hedana''' &quot;into the house&quot;<br /> * '''ar kis hedanik''' &quot;from the house&quot;, &quot;out of the house&quot;<br /> * '''syn debb hedanebb''' &quot;near the house&quot;<br /> * '''syn na hedana''' &quot;going near of the house&quot;<br /> * '''pɛn debb hedanebb''' &quot;besides the house&quot;, &quot;next to the house&quot;<br /> * '''pɛn na hedana''' &quot;going next to the house&quot;<br /> * '''lujg debb hedanebb''' &quot;in front to the house&quot;<br /> * '''lujg na hedana''' &quot;going to the front of the house&quot;<br /> * '''mœh dɛv hedanɛv''' &quot;without the house&quot;<br /> * '''sto debb hedanebb''' &quot;on top of the house&quot;<br /> * '''sto na hedana''' &quot;going onto (the top of) the house&quot;<br /> * '''krɔj debb hedanebb''' &quot;under the house&quot;<br /> * '''uzd kʃu hedanu''' &quot;instead of the house&quot;<br /> * '''blas debb hedanebb''' &quot;behind the house&quot;<br /> * '''blas na hedana''' &quot;going behind the house&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> == Adjectives ==<br /> <br /> === Attributive Adjectives ===<br /> Attributive adjectives in Dahur are invariable and come before the noun. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''fɛren grats''' &quot;a smart boy&quot;<br /> * '''duʃ halajn''' &quot;clean water&quot;<br /> * '''selak kanaris''' &quot;pretty eyes&quot;<br /> <br /> A few attributes may be expressed by affixes to the noun, instead of the separate adjective. The most common ones are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar'''<br /> |'''-os''' <br /> (usually deleting the last vowel of the original noun)<br /> |&quot;big&quot;, &quot;large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr'''<br /> |'''-in-''' <br /> (before the last vowel of the or. noun)<br /> |&quot;small&quot;, &quot;little&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani'''<br /> |'''-(t)ta-''' <br /> (before the second vowel of the or. noun)<br /> |&quot;good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''<br /> |'''-aar'''<br /> |&quot;bad&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !With Adjective<br /> !With Affixed Form<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''piktarʃos''' <br /> |&quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''piktarinaʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a little problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''attastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a good idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlaar'''<br /> |&quot;a bad idea&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Certain adjectives have a special, shortened form, which is prefixed to nouns when used attributively. <br /> The most common ones are: <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar'''<br /> |'''nah-''' <br /> |&quot;big&quot;, &quot;large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr'''<br /> |'''ki-''' <br /> (doubles the initial consonant of the noun)<br /> |&quot;small&quot;, &quot;little&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani'''<br /> |'''suw-''' ('''suww-''' before vowels)<br /> |&quot;good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''<br /> |'''dag-''' ('''dagg-''' before vowels)<br /> |&quot;bad&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin'''<br /> |'''sin-''' <br /> |&quot;new&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ'''<br /> |'''dom-''' <br /> |&quot;old&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''mahhalis'''<br /> |'''mah-''' <br /> |&quot;ancient&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''', '''makʃølin'''<br /> |'''møkʃ-''' <br /> |&quot;important&quot;, &quot;great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan'''<br /> |'''tos-''', '''tan-''' <br /> |&quot;beautiful&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki'''<br /> |'''killi-''' <br /> |&quot;false&quot;, &quot;fake&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !With Adjective<br /> !With Prefix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''nahpiktaraʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''kippiktaraʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a small problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''suwwastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a good idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''daggastrønɛl'''<br /> |&quot;a bad idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin dasutr'''<br /> |'''sindasutr''' <br /> |&quot;a new document&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ hedan'''<br /> |'''domhedan''' <br /> |&quot;an old house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''mahhalis kataʃtevan'''<br /> |'''mahkataʃtevan''' <br /> |&quot;an ancient civilization&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen dasutr''', '''makʃølin dasutr'''<br /> |'''møkʃdasutr''' <br /> |&quot;an important document&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen astrønɛl''', '''makʃølin astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''møkʃastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a great idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan dummal'''<br /> |'''tosdummal''', '''tandummal''' <br /> |&quot;a beautiful song&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki bɔrakʃ'''<br /> |'''killibɔrakʃ''' <br /> |&quot;false news&quot;, &quot;fake news&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Predicative Adjectives ===<br /> <br /> An adjective used in predicative function is invariable. Only the full forms of adjectives can be used predicatively. <br /> <br /> Usually a linking verb is employed. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru astrønɛl laje makʃølen.''' || The idea is great.<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru grats alanje befitra.''' || The boy is tired.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is also the possibility of turning adjectives into verbs. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru astrønɛl makʃølnaje.''' || The idea is great.<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru grats abefitranje.''' || The boy is tired.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The most common way to make an adjective into a verb, implying the idea of &quot;be&quot;, is the suffix '''-a-''', which may cause some change in the last syllable of the original adjective. If the adjective already ends in '''-a''', there is no change. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''' <br /> &quot;great&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølna''' <br /> &quot;be great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;be tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani''' <br /> &quot;good&quot;<br /> |'''suwanja''' <br /> &quot;be good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''' <br /> &quot;bad&quot;<br /> |'''daggusa''' <br /> &quot;be bad&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin''' <br /> &quot;new&quot;<br /> |'''sulna''', '''sinna''' <br /> &quot;be new&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ''' <br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dɛtra''' <br /> &quot;be old&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan''' <br /> &quot;beautiful&quot;<br /> |'''tossana''', '''tosna''' <br /> &quot;be beautiful&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''trapter''' <br /> &quot;unique&quot;<br /> |'''traptra''' <br /> &quot;be unique&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃɔtma''' <br /> &quot;sure&quot;, &quot;certain&quot;<br /> |'''ʃɔtama''' <br /> &quot;be sure&quot;, &quot;be certain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kanikli''' <br /> &quot;appropriate&quot;<br /> |'''kankilja''' <br /> &quot;be appropriate&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tubbar''' <br /> &quot;white&quot;<br /> |'''tubabra''' <br /> &quot;be white&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kindis''' <br /> &quot;clear&quot;<br /> |'''kinitsa''' <br /> &quot;be clear&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''turu'''<br /> &quot;wrong&quot;<br /> |'''turva''', '''terva'''<br /> &quot;be wrong&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''divlaas'''<br /> &quot;sick, ill&quot;<br /> |'''dulaasa'''<br /> &quot;be sick, be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tadʒon'''<br /> &quot;pleased&quot;<br /> |'''todʒna'''<br /> &quot;be pleased&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''eskataʃi'''<br /> &quot;acquainted&quot;<br /> |'''eskataʃʃa''', '''eskatʃa'''<br /> &quot;be acquainted&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Another suffix is '''-(a)st(a)-''', meaning &quot;to get&quot; or &quot;to become&quot;. The first optional '''-a-''' appears when necessary, to avoid unsuitable consonant clusters, while the final '''-a''' is only used in the infinitive form of the verb - i.e., without any suffixes. There are some irregular formations.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''' <br /> &quot;great&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølnasta''' <br /> &quot;become great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitrasta''' <br /> &quot;get tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar''' <br /> &quot;big, large&quot;<br /> |'''nahasta''', '''narasta''' <br /> &quot;get big&quot;, &quot;increase&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr''' <br /> &quot;little, small&quot;<br /> |'''kitrasta''', '''katrasta''', '''kirrasta''' <br /> &quot;get smaller&quot;, &quot;decrease&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani''' <br /> &quot;good&quot;<br /> |'''suwanasta'''<br /> &quot;become good&quot;<br /> <br /> '''suwasta''', '''sawasta''', '''suwnasta''' <br /> <br /> &quot;get better&quot;, &quot;improve&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''' , '''daggussa'''<br /> &quot;bad&quot;<br /> |'''daggusasta''', '''daggussasta''' <br /> &quot;become bad&quot;<br /> <br /> '''daggasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get worse&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ'''<br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛsta'''<br /> &quot;become old&quot;<br /> <br /> '''dotrasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get older&quot;, &quot;to age&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan'''<br /> &quot;beautiful<br /> |'''tossanasta'''<br /> &quot;become beautiful&quot;<br /> <br /> '''tossasta''', '''tosnasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get prettier&quot;, &quot;beautify&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki'''<br /> &quot;false&quot;, &quot;fake&quot;<br /> |'''ablikasta'''<br /> &quot;become invalid&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''divlaas'''<br /> &quot;sick, ill&quot;<br /> |'''dulaasta'''<br /> &quot;be sick, be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''eskataʃi'''<br /> &quot;acquainted&quot;<br /> |'''eskatʃasta'''<br /> &quot;get acquainted&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> A few other suffixes perform similar tasks, with more specific meanings. These are usually quite regular. The most productive among these suffixes are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-we'''<br /> |&quot;to remain&quot;, &quot;still be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-kas'''<br /> |&quot;to seem&quot;, &quot;to appear&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-ʃyn'''<br /> |&quot;to pretend to be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-dobb(a)-'''<br /> |&quot;to cease to be&quot;, &quot;to be no longer&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-guj'''<br /> |&quot;to be a little bit&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''nøssar''' <br /> &quot;calm&quot;<br /> |'''nøssarwe''' &quot;remain calm&quot;, &quot;keep calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarkaʃ''' &quot;seem/appear calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarʃyn''' &quot;pretend to be calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssardobba''' &quot;cease to be calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarguj''' &quot;be a little calm&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ''' <br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛkaʃ''' &quot;seem/appear old&quot;<br /> <br /> '''dotrɛguj''' &quot;be a little old&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Comparative === <br /> The comparative of superiority of an adjective can be made by adding the suffix '''-ju''' to the stem. This suffix doubles a preceeding consonant, or becomes '''-jju''' when preceeded by a vowel. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''fɛrennju grats''' &quot;a smarter boy&quot;<br /> * '''duʃʃju halajn''' &quot;cleaner water&quot;<br /> * '''selakkju kanaris''' &quot;prettier eyes&quot;<br /> * '''naharrju piktaraʃ''' &quot;a bigger problem&quot;<br /> * '''kittrju piktaraʃ''' &quot;a smaller problem&quot; <br /> * '''suwanijju astrønɛl''' &quot;a better idea&quot;<br /> * '''daggussju''' / '''daggussajju astrønɛl''' &quot;a worse idea&quot;<br /> * '''dotrɛjju pɛten''' &quot;an older book&quot;<br /> <br /> Comparative adjectives may be turned into verbs regularly with the suffix '''-a''', which then becomes '''-wa'''. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølennju''' <br /> &quot;greater&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølennjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be greater&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitrajju''' <br /> &quot;more tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitrajjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be more tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwanijju''' <br /> &quot;better&quot;<br /> |'''suwanijjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be better&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulinnju''' <br /> &quot;newer&quot;<br /> |'''sulinnjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be newer&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛjju''' <br /> &quot;older&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛjjuwa'''<br /> &quot;be older&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossannju''' <br /> &quot;more beautiful&quot;<br /> |'''tossannjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be more beautiful&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The complement of a comparison, corresponding to the conjunction &quot;than&quot;, is placed in the ablative case. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''Nuv pɛten laej suwanijju tuhafɛv.''' &quot;This book is better than that one&quot;<br /> * '''Nuv pɛten suwanijjuwaej tuhafɛv.''' (idem)<br /> * '''Tru dukʃatr laej dotrɛjju dɛv egastɛvɛv.''' &quot;The boss is older than the farmer&quot;<br /> * '''Tru dukʃatr dotrɛjjuwaej dɛv egastɛvɛv.''' (idem)<br /> <br /> == Numerals ==<br /> The basic cardinal numbers are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |0 || '''kal''', '''kahtral'''<br /> |-<br /> |1 || '''mihen'''<br /> |-<br /> |2 || '''dahas'''<br /> |-<br /> |3 || '''travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |4 || '''gazen'''<br /> |-<br /> |5 || '''kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |6 || '''pinjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |7 || '''høtak'''<br /> |-<br /> |8 || '''magɛl'''<br /> |-<br /> |9 || '''donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |10 || '''zɛhɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |11 || '''zɛhɛv mihen''', '''zɛvhen'''<br /> |-<br /> |12 || '''zɛhɛv dahas''', '''zɛvdas'''<br /> |-<br /> |13 || '''zɛhɛv travis''', '''zɛvtras'''<br /> |-<br /> |14 || '''zɛhɛv gazen''', '''zɛvzen'''<br /> |-<br /> |15 || '''zɛhɛv kɛʃav''', '''zɛvkʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |16 || '''zɛhɛv pinjan''', '''zɛvpan'''<br /> |-<br /> |17 || '''zɛhɛv høtak''','''zɛvhøk'''<br /> |-<br /> |18 || '''zɛhɛv magɛl''', '''zɛvmal'''<br /> |-<br /> |19 || '''zɛhɛv donwaʒ''', '''zɛvdaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |20 || '''dahassɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |30 || '''travissɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |40 || '''gazennɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |50 || '''kɛʃavvɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |60 || '''pinjannɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |70 || '''høtakkɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |80 || '''magɛllɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |90 || '''donwaʒʒɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |100 || '''lakin'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,000 || '''tatrimi'''<br /> |-<br /> |10,000 || '''zɛhɛv tatrimi'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Numbers are composed by joining the base units above, from bigger to lower. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |23 || '''dahassɛv travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |45 || '''gazennɛv kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |67 || '''pinjannɛv høtak'''<br /> |-<br /> |89 || '''magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |123 || '''lakin dahassɛv travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |456 || '''gazen lakin kɛʃavvɛv pinjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |789 || '''høtak lakin magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,234 || '''tatrimi dahas lakin travissɛv gazen'''<br /> |-<br /> |5,678 || '''kɛʃav tatrimi pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl'''<br /> |-<br /> |12,345 || '''zɛvdas tatrimi travis lakin gazennɛv kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |678,910 || '''pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl tatrimi donwaʒ lakin zɛhɛv'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Ordinal numbers are created with the suffix '''-iki'''. Ex.: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |1st || '''miheniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |2nd || '''dahasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |3rd || '''travisiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |4th || '''gazeniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |5th || '''kɛʃaviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |6th || '''pinjaniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |7th || '''høtakiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |8th || '''magɛliki'''<br /> |-<br /> |9th || '''donwaʒiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |10th || '''zɛhɛviki''', '''zɛhviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |11th || '''zɛvheniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |12th || '''zɛvdasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |13th || '''zɛvtrasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |14th || '''zɛvzeniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |15th || '''zɛvkʃaviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |16th || '''zɛvpaniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |17th || '''zɛvhøkiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |18th || '''zɛvmaliki'''<br /> |-<br /> |19th || '''zɛvdaʒiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |20th || '''dahassɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |30th || '''travissɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |40th || '''gazennɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |50th || '''kɛʃavvɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |60th || '''pinjannɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |70th || '''høtakkɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |80th || '''magɛllɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |90th || '''donwaʒʒɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |100th || '''lakiniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,000th || '''tatrimiiki'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Pronouns ==<br /> <br /> === Personal Pronouns ===<br /> Personal Pronouns in Dahur indicate person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and number (singular, dual, plural).<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|1st Person<br /> |'''dɛ''' &quot;I&quot; , &quot;me&quot;<br /> |'''ʃes''' &quot;we both&quot;<br /> |'''ʃɛn''' &quot;we&quot;, &quot;us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''dɛ'''<br /> |'''ʃes'''<br /> |'''ʃɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''dɛa''', '''da'''<br /> |'''ʃeas''', '''ʃas'''<br /> |'''ʃan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''dɛw''', '''du'''<br /> |'''ʃeus''', '''ʃews''', '''ʃus'''<br /> |'''ʃɛun''', '''ʃɛwn''', '''ʃun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''dɛk'''<br /> |'''ʃesk'''<br /> |'''ʃɛkɛn''', '''ʃkɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''dɛbb'''<br /> |'''ʃeps'''<br /> |'''ʃɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''dɛm'''<br /> |'''ʃems'''<br /> |'''ʃɛom''', '''ʃom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |'''ʃɛfs'''<br /> |'''ʃɛɛv''', '''ʃɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''dɛjøtr''', '''dɛtr'''<br /> |'''ʃesøtr'''<br /> |'''ʃɛtrøn''', '''ʃtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''dɛt'''<br /> |'''ʃets'''<br /> |'''ʃɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|2nd Person<br /> |'''hej''' &quot;you (sg.), thou&quot;<br /> |'''kwes''' &quot;you both&quot;<br /> |'''kwɛn''' &quot;you (pl.)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''hej'''<br /> |'''kwes'''<br /> |'''kwɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''heja''', '''ja'''<br /> |'''kweas''', '''kwas'''<br /> |'''kwɛan''', '''kwan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''heju''', '''ju'''<br /> |'''kweus'''<br /> |'''kwɛun''', '''kun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''heik''', '''hejik'''<br /> |'''kwesk'''<br /> |'''kwɛnek''', '''kwɛnk'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''heibb''', '''hibb'''<br /> |'''kweps'''<br /> |'''kwɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''heim''', '''him'''<br /> |'''kwems'''<br /> |'''kwɛom''', '''kwɛm''', '''kwom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''hejɛv''', '''jɛv'''<br /> |'''kwɛfs'''<br /> |'''kwɛɛv''', '''kwɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''hejøtr''', '''hjøtr'''<br /> |'''kwesøtr'''<br /> |'''kwɛtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Vocative<br /> |'''heje'''<br /> |'''kwejes'''<br /> |'''kwɛjɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''hɛt'''<br /> |'''kwets'''<br /> |'''kwɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|3rd Person<br /> |'''nar''' &quot;he&quot;, &quot;she&quot;, &quot;it&quot;<br /> |'''ras''' &quot;they both&quot;<br /> |'''ren''' &quot;they&quot;, &quot;them&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''nar'''<br /> |'''ras'''<br /> |'''rɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''nara''', '''ra'''<br /> |'''ras'''<br /> |'''rɛan''', '''ran'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''naru''', '''ru'''<br /> |'''raus''', '''raws''', '''rus'''<br /> |'''rɛun''', '''rɛwn''', '''run'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''narɛk''', '''rɛk'''<br /> |'''resk'''<br /> |'''rɛkɛn''', '''ɛrken'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''narebb''', '''rebb'''<br /> |'''reps'''<br /> |'''rɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''narom''', '''rom'''<br /> |'''rems'''<br /> |'''rɛnom''', '''rom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''narɛv''', '''rɛv'''<br /> |'''rɛfs'''<br /> |'''rɛɛv''', '''rɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''narøtr''', '''røtr'''<br /> |'''resøtr'''<br /> |'''rɛtrøn''', '''ɛrtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''rɛt'''<br /> |'''rets'''<br /> |'''rɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The '''genitive''' forms work as possessive pronouns. In that case, the definite article is optional. Ex.: <br /> * '''tru dɛk astrønɛl''', '''dɛk astrønɛl''' &quot;my idea&quot;<br /> * '''na heik kʃalima''', '''heik kʃalima''' &quot;your hair (accus.)&quot;<br /> * '''trom narɛk kɛʃevom''', '''narɛk kɛʃevom''' &quot;with his/her hammer (instr.)&quot;<br /> * '''tu dɛk menirun''', '''dɛk menirun''' &quot;to my children (dat.)&quot;<br /> <br /> Object pronouns usually come before the verb. The shorter, unstressed version is preferred. Ex.: <br /> * '''Ja angenus.''' &quot;I can see you (sing.).&quot;<br /> * '''Kwas angenus.''' &quot;I can see you two.&quot;<br /> * '''Kwan angenus.''' &quot;I can see you (pl.).&quot;<br /> * '''Ra angenus.''' &quot;I can see it/him/her.&quot;<br /> * '''Ras angenus.''' &quot;I can see them both.&quot;<br /> * '''Ran angenus.''' &quot;I can see them.&quot;<br /> * '''Da angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see me.&quot;<br /> * '''ʃas angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see us both.&quot;<br /> * '''ʃan angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see us.&quot;<br /> <br /> An object pronoun may also appear after the verb. In that case, the preference is for the longer, stressed versions. Ex.:<br /> * '''Angenus ja/heja.''' &quot;I can see you (sing.).&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus kweas/kwas.''' &quot;I can see you two.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus kwɛan/kwan.''' &quot;I can see you (pl.).&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus nara/ra.''' &quot;I can see it/him/her.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus ras.''' &quot;I can see them both.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus rɛan/ran.''' &quot;I can see them.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej dɛa/da.''' &quot;He/she can see me.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej ʃeas/ʃas.''' &quot;He/she can see us both.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej ʃan.''' &quot;He/she can see us.&quot;<br /> <br /> The most common case for a verb complement is the accusative. However, verbs may require different cases. Ex.: <br /> * '''Kun dagsuttoj!''' &quot;It will harm you!&quot; / &quot;It will be harmful to you!&quot; ('''dagusta''' &quot;harm, be harmful&quot; + dat.)<br /> * '''Ja/Ju darʃinɔn.''' &quot;We trust you.&quot; ('''darʃin''' &quot;trust&quot; + acc./dat.)<br /> * '''Poglattindsa narɛv/rɛv''' &quot;I didn't use it.&quot; ('''poglar''' &quot;use&quot; + abl.)<br /> * '''Ra twiʃnettmis.''' &quot;You drank it (all).&quot; / '''Rɛt twiʃnettmis.''' &quot;You drank (some of) it.&quot; '''twiʃin''' &quot;drink&quot; +acc. (whole), +part. (specific amount)<br /> <br /> === Demonstrative Pronouns ===<br /> The main demonstrative pronouns are: <br /> <br /> * '''nuv''' &quot;this, these&quot;<br /> * '''tuhaf''' &quot;that, those&quot;<br /> <br /> When accompanying a noun, they behave as adjectives and are not inflected. <br /> <br /> When used on their own, they stand as nouns and are inflected according to the class of the intended noun. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''Nuv grats laej fɛrennju nuvɛv.''' &quot;This boy is smarter than this one.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> === Interrogative Pronouns ===<br /> <br /> === Indefinite Pronouns ===<br /> <br /> === Relative Pronoun ===<br /> The main relative pronoun in Dahur is '''jao''', as shown in the following table. <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''jao'''<br /> |'''jes'''<br /> |'''jen'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''jaa''', '''ja'''<br /> |'''jeas''', '''jas'''<br /> |'''jaan''', '''jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''jau''', '''jaw'''<br /> |'''jeus''', '''jews'''<br /> |'''jeun''', '''jewn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''jak'''<br /> |'''jesk'''<br /> |'''jenk'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''jaebb'''<br /> |'''jaeps'''<br /> |'''jaemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''jaom'''<br /> |'''jaoms'''<br /> |'''jaom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''jaɛv'''<br /> |'''jaɛfs'''<br /> |'''janɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''jaøtr'''<br /> |'''jasøtr'''<br /> |'''jatrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> | - <br /> |'''jets'''<br /> |'''jent'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The pronoun agrees in number with the antecedent, but its case is determined by its function in the subordinate clause. Ex.:<br /> * '''tru grats jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;the boy (nom.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''na gratsa jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;the boy (accus.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''kʃu gratsu jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;to the boy (dat.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''kis gratsak jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;of the boy (gen.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''trø gratsøtr jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;by the boy (erg.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''tann gratsen jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;the boys (nom.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''ta gratsan jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;the boys (accus.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tun gratsun jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;to the boys (dat.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tak gratsken jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr gratsetrøn jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tru grats jaa kahettsa''' &quot;the boy (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''na gratsa jaa kahettsa''' &quot;the boy (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''kʃu gratsu jaa kahettsa''' &quot;to the boy (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''kis gratsak jaa kahettsa''' &quot;of the boy (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''trø gratsøtr jaa kahettsa''' &quot;by the boy (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tann gratsen jaan kahettsa''' &quot;the boys (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''ta gratsan jaan kahettsa''' &quot;the boys (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tun gratsun jaan kahettsa''' &quot;to the boys (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tak gratsken jaan kahettsa''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr gratsetrøn jaan kahettsa''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> <br /> Besides this pronoun, relative clauses may also be formed with participles. <br /> <br /> Ex.:<br /> <br /> * '''tru ateʃfanur grats''' &quot;the boy (nom.) who is running away&quot; <br /> * '''na ateʃfanur gratsa''' &quot;the boy (accus.) who is running away&quot; <br /> * '''tak ateʃfanur gratsken''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) who are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tru dɛtr kahettek grats''', '''tru grats dɛtr kahettek''' &quot;the boy (nom.) whom I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr dɛtr kahettek gratsetrøn''', '''tøtr gratsetrøn dɛtr kahettek''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) whom I saw&quot;<br /> <br /> == Verbs ==<br /> <br /> === Finite Forms ===<br /> <br /> Verbs in Dahur have different stems indicating aspect. The conjugation uses different sets of endings to indicate tense or time. <br /> <br /> The basic verb stems are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Aspect<br /> !Meaning<br /> !Form<br /> |-<br /> |Generic<br /> |''verbal idea without a specific context, time or aspect''<br /> |the basic stem of the verb<br /> |-<br /> |Cursive (Progressive; Continuous)<br /> |''action ongoing at the moment of reference<br /> |prefix '''a-''' and suffix '''-(a)n-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Aorist<br /> |''a complete or punctual action''<br /> |suffix '''-(e)tt-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Perfect<br /> |''the result of an action that happened before the reference time''<br /> |suffix '''-(l)l(a)-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Unrealised (Future)<br /> |''action as not realised in relation to the reference time''<br /> |prefix '''u-''' and suffix '''-(u)ʃ-''' <br /> |-<br /> |Conditional<br /> |''irrealis, usually an action depending on another''<br /> |prefix '''i-''' (doubling the initial consonant) and suffix '''-i-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Stem formation is often irregular. <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Generic<br /> !Cursive<br /> !Aorist<br /> !Perfect<br /> !Unrealised<br /> !Conditional <br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmal-'''<br /> |'''akʃmalan-'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalett-'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalla-'''<br /> |'''ukaʃmaluʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkaʃmali-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''la-'''<br /> |'''alan-'''<br /> |'''latt-'''<br /> |'''lalla-'''<br /> |'''ulauʃ-'''<br /> |'''illai-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''wennin''' &quot;live&quot; <br /> |'''wennin-'''<br /> |'''awann-'''<br /> |'''wennett-'''<br /> |'''wennilla-'''<br /> |'''uwenninʃ-'''<br /> |'''iwennini-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadra-'''<br /> |'''agandran-'''<br /> |'''gadrett-'''<br /> |'''gadralla-'''<br /> |'''ugadruʃ-'''<br /> |'''iggadri-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''tefʃiv''' &quot;flee&quot;<br /> |'''tefʃiv-'''<br /> |'''ateʃfan-'''<br /> |'''tefʃivett-'''<br /> |'''tefʃivla-'''<br /> |'''utefʃivuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittefʃivi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maʃkintɾod''' &quot;represent&quot;<br /> |'''maʃkintɾod-'''<br /> |'''amaʃkintɾon-'''<br /> |'''maʃkintɾott-'''<br /> |'''maʃkintɾolla-'''<br /> |'''umaʃkintɾotʃ-'''<br /> |'''immaʃkintɾodi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kajnaar''' &quot;jump&quot;<br /> |'''kajnaar-'''<br /> |'''akajnaan-'''<br /> |'''kajnerett-'''<br /> |'''kajnaalla-'''<br /> |'''ukajnaaruʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkajnaari-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys''' &quot;take care of&quot;<br /> |'''taldesyys-'''<br /> |'''ataldesyyn-'''<br /> |'''taldesyyst-'''<br /> |'''taldesyyll-'''<br /> |'''utaldesyyʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittaldesyysi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kota-'''<br /> |'''ankon-'''<br /> |'''kotatt-'''<br /> |'''kekolla-'''<br /> |'''ukotuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkoti-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussi-'''<br /> |'''ahsejn-'''<br /> |'''hust-'''<br /> |'''huzilla-'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ihusseji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''ken-''', '''kena-'''<br /> |'''angen-'''<br /> |'''kahett-'''<br /> |'''kenalla-''', '''kralla-'''<br /> |'''ukunuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkeni-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''mend''' &quot;become&quot;<br /> |'''mend-'''<br /> |'''amdan-'''<br /> |'''menett-'''<br /> |'''mendla-'''<br /> |'''umenduʃ-'''<br /> |'''immendi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustaj-''', '''ustaji-'''<br /> |'''anstajn-''', '''anstajin-'''<br /> |'''ustatt-''', '''ustitt-'''<br /> |'''ustalla-''', '''ustilla-'''<br /> |'''ustajuʃ-'''<br /> |'''istaji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''maj-'''<br /> |'''amann-'''<br /> |'''menett-'''<br /> |'''mjalla-'''<br /> |'''umujuʃ-'''<br /> |'''immaji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trak-'''<br /> |'''atrakan-'''<br /> |'''tetrakett-'''<br /> |'''ketralla-'''<br /> |'''utrakʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittraggi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''pakt''' &quot;understand&quot;<br /> |'''pakt-'''<br /> |'''ampakn-'''<br /> |'''pakett-'''<br /> |'''paktalla-'''<br /> |'''upaktuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ippakti-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''durʃin''' &quot;seem, appear&quot;<br /> |'''durʃin-'''<br /> |'''adurʃan-'''<br /> |'''durʃint-'''<br /> |'''durʃilla-'''<br /> |'''udurʃinʃ-'''<br /> |'''iddurʃini-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka''' &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |'''ʃaka-'''<br /> |'''aʃkan-'''<br /> |'''ʃakkatt-'''<br /> |'''ʃakalla-'''<br /> |'''uʃakkuʃ-'''<br /> |'''iʃakki-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kʃa''' [passive voice auxiliary]<br /> |'''kʃa-'''<br /> |'''akʃan-'''<br /> |'''kʃatt-'''<br /> |'''kʃalla-'''<br /> |'''ukʃuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkʃi-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The personal endings are : <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Present<br /> !Past<br /> !Future<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-sa'''<br /> |'''-os'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''-im'''<br /> |'''-mis'''<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''-ej'''<br /> |'''-jes'''<br /> |'''-oj'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''-ɔn'''<br /> |'''-sɔn'''<br /> |'''-on'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''-ib'''<br /> |'''-ips'''<br /> |'''-ob'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''-ɛw'''<br /> |'''-sɛw'''<br /> |'''-ow'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The following combinations of stem + ending set occur: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |Present<br /> |Past<br /> |Future<br /> |-<br /> |Generic<br /> !Simple <br /> Present<br /> !Habitual<br /> Past (&quot;used to&quot;)<br /> !Indefinite<br /> Future<br /> |-<br /> |Cursive<br /> !Present<br /> Continuous<br /> !Past <br /> Continuous<br /> !Future<br /> Progressive<br /> |-<br /> |Aorist<br /> |<br /> !Simple <br /> Past (Aorist)<br /> !Definite Future<br /> (Specific, Punctual)<br /> |-<br /> |Perfect<br /> !Present <br /> Perfect<br /> !Past<br /> Perfect<br /> !Future <br /> Perfect<br /> |-<br /> |Unrealised<br /> !Near <br /> Future<br /> !Unrealised <br /> Past (&quot;would&quot;)<br /> !Future <br /> (Remote) <br /> |-<br /> |Conditional <br /> !Conditional <br /> Present<br /> !Conditional <br /> Past<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> For the imperative, the base form of the verb is used. Optionally, the particle '''a''' can be used before the verb. Ex.: <br /> * '''Kaʃmal!''' / '''A kaʃmal!''' &quot;Take!&quot;<br /> * '''Hussi!''' / '''A hussi!''' &quot;Listen!&quot;<br /> * '''Spa kajnaar!''' / '''A spa kajnaar!''' &quot;Don't jump!&quot;<br /> <br /> While the formation of aspect stems is often irregular, the combination of stem + endings is usually quite regular and predictable. The usual epenthetic phonemes occur, mostly the semivowels ('''j''' and '''w'''), when two vowels come together, but these are more an artifact of speech and aren't usually indicated in writing. Ex.: <br /> * '''kaʃmallaus''', '''kaʃmallawus''' <br /> * '''kaʃmallaim''', '''kaʃmallajim''' <br /> * '''kaʃmallaej''', '''kaʃmallajej''', '''kaʃmallahej'''<br /> * '''kaʃmallaɔn''', '''kaʃmallawɔn''' <br /> * '''iggadriips''', '''iggadrijips'''<br /> * '''iggadrius''', '''iggadrijus'''<br /> * &amp;c.<br /> <br /> ==== Negative ====<br /> <br /> The infix '''-(i)nd-''', placed before the personal endings, makes a verb negative. Ex.: <br /> * '''landus''' &quot;I am not&quot;<br /> * '''lattindsɛw''' &quot;they weren't&quot;<br /> * '''hussindoj''' &quot;he/she won't listen&quot;<br /> * '''ateʃfanindips''' &quot;you weren't running away&quot;<br /> <br /> The emphatic negative particle '''spa''' may be used before the verb, always in the negative form. Ex.: <br /> * '''spa landus''' &quot;I am most certainly not&quot;<br /> * '''spa lattindsɛw''' &quot;they definitely weren't&quot;<br /> * '''spa hussindoj''' &quot;he/she will not listen at all&quot;<br /> * '''spa ateʃfanindips''' &quot;you really weren't running away&quot;<br /> <br /> This particle '''spa''' is also used in a negative command, with the base form of the verb. In that case, it doesn't necessarily have an emphatic meaning. Ex.: <br /> * '''Spa hussi!''' / '''A spa hussi!''' &quot;Don't listen!&quot;<br /> <br /> === Nominal Forms ===<br /> <br /> ==== Infinitive ==== <br /> <br /> The Dahur verb has infinitives for the Generic, Cursive, Aorist, Perfect and Unrealised aspects. They are formed by adding the ending '''-eh''' to the corresponding stem. The prefix '''u-''' of the Unrealised aspect is optional in the infinitive. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Generic<br /> !Cursive<br /> !Aorist<br /> !Perfect<br /> !Unrealised<br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmaleh'''<br /> |'''akʃmalaneh'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaletteh'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaeh'''<br /> |'''ukaʃmaluʃeh''', '''kaʃmaluʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''laeh'''<br /> |'''alaneh'''<br /> |'''latteh'''<br /> |'''lallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)lauʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadraeh'''<br /> |'''agandraneh'''<br /> |'''gadretteh'''<br /> |'''gadrallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)gadruʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kotaeh'''<br /> |'''ankoneh'''<br /> |'''kotatteh'''<br /> |'''kekollaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)kotuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussieh'''<br /> |'''ahsejneh'''<br /> |'''husteh'''<br /> |'''huzillaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)hussuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''keneh'''<br /> |'''angeneh'''<br /> |'''kahetteh'''<br /> |'''kenallaeh''', '''krallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)kunuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustajeh'''<br /> |'''anstajneh'''<br /> |'''ustatteh''', '''ustitteh'''<br /> |'''ustallaeh''', '''ustillaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)stajuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''majeh'''<br /> |'''amanneh'''<br /> |'''menetteh'''<br /> |'''mjallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)mujuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trakeh'''<br /> |'''atrakaneh'''<br /> |'''tetraketteh'''<br /> |'''ketrallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)trakʃeh'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The infinitive may be used as a noun, but also with certain auxiliary verbs. When a participle is used as a noun, usually the definite article may be omitted. Ex.: <br /> <br /> *'''(Tru) kotaeh laej suwani.''' / '''(Tru) kotaeh suwanjaej.''' &quot;Eating is good.&quot;<br /> <br /> ==== Participle ====<br /> Participles are built by adding specific suffixes to the corresponding stems of the verb: <br /> * '''-ur''' (active participle)<br /> * '''-ek''' (passive participle)<br /> <br /> The prefix '''u-''' of the unrealised stem is dropped.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Generic<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Cursive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Aorist<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmalur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalek'''<br /> |'''akʃmalanur'''<br /> |'''akʃmalanek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalettur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalettek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaur''', '''kaʃmallur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaek''', '''kaʃmallek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaluʃur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaluʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''laur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''alanur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lattur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lallaur''', '''lallur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lauʃur'''<br /> | <br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadraur'''<br /> |'''gadraek'''<br /> |'''agandranur'''<br /> |'''agandranek'''<br /> |'''gadrettur'''<br /> |'''gadrettek'''<br /> |'''gadrallur'''<br /> |'''gadrallek'''<br /> |'''gadruʃur'''<br /> |'''gadruʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kotaur'''<br /> |'''kotaek'''<br /> |'''ankonur'''<br /> |'''ankonek'''<br /> |'''kotattur'''<br /> |'''kotattek'''<br /> |'''kekollur'''<br /> |'''kekollek'''<br /> |'''kotuʃur'''<br /> |'''kotuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussiur'''<br /> |'''hussiek'''<br /> |'''ahsejnur'''<br /> |'''ahsejnek'''<br /> |'''hustur'''<br /> |'''hustek'''<br /> |'''huzillaur'''<br /> |'''huzillaek'''<br /> |'''hussuʃur'''<br /> |'''hussuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''kenur'''<br /> |'''kenek'''<br /> |'''angenur'''<br /> |'''angenek'''<br /> |'''kahettur'''<br /> |'''kahettek'''<br /> |'''kenallur''', '''krallur'''<br /> |'''kenallek''', '''krallek'''<br /> |'''kunuʃur'''<br /> |'''kunuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustajur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''anstajnur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustattur''', '''ustittur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustallur''', '''ustillek'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustajuʃur'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''majur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''amannur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''menettur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''mjallur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''mujuʃur'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trakur'''<br /> |'''trakek'''<br /> |'''atrakanur'''<br /> |'''atrakanek'''<br /> |'''tetrakettur'''<br /> |'''tetrakettek'''<br /> |'''ketrallur'''<br /> |'''ketrallek'''<br /> |'''trakʃur'''<br /> |'''trakʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka''' &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |'''ʃakaur'''<br /> |'''ʃakaek'''<br /> |'''aʃkanur'''<br /> |'''aʃkanek'''<br /> |'''ʃakkattur'''<br /> |'''ʃakkattek'''<br /> |'''ʃakallur'''<br /> |'''ʃakallek'''<br /> |'''ʃakkuʃur'''<br /> |'''ʃakkuʃek'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The corresponding negative versions of these participles are formed regularly with the suffix '''-(i)nd-'''. Ex.:<br /> * '''landur''' &quot;not being&quot;<br /> * '''angenindur''' &quot;not seeing&quot;<br /> * '''gradrettindek''' &quot;not written&quot;<br /> * '''ketrallindur''' &quot;who/which had not done&quot;<br /> * '''aʃkanindek''' &quot;which isn't being hunted&quot;<br /> <br /> === Passive Voice ===<br /> <br /> The passive voice is built with the auxiliary '''kʃa''', conjugated regularly, followed by the base form of the verb. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''akʃanus taldesyys''' &quot;I'm being taken care of&quot;<br /> * '''akʃanindmis ken''' &quot;you were not being seen&quot;<br /> * '''kʃallaɔn kaʃmal''' &quot;we have been taken&quot;<br /> * '''kʃattsɛw kota''' &quot;they were eaten&quot;<br /> * '''ikkʃindej trak''' &quot;if it's not done&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> === Conjugation ===<br /> Next you have a few verbs, conjugated in all its forms.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|Verb '''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Present<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Continuous <br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Perfect <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Near Future <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Present <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''laus'''<br /> |'''landus'''<br /> |'''alanus'''<br /> |'''alanindus'''<br /> |'''lallaus'''<br /> |'''lallandus'''<br /> |'''ulauʃus'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindus'''<br /> |'''illaius'''<br /> |'''illaindus'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''laim'''<br /> |'''landim'''<br /> |'''alanim'''<br /> |'''alanindim'''<br /> |'''lallaim'''<br /> |'''lallandim'''<br /> |'''ulauʃim'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindim'''<br /> |'''illaiim'''<br /> |'''illaindim'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''laej'''<br /> |'''landej'''<br /> |'''alanej'''<br /> |'''alanindej'''<br /> |'''lallaej'''<br /> |'''lallandej'''<br /> |'''ulauʃej'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindej'''<br /> |'''illaiej'''<br /> |'''illaindej'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''laɔn'''<br /> |'''landɔn'''<br /> |'''alanɔn'''<br /> |'''alanindɔn'''<br /> |'''lallaɔn'''<br /> |'''lallandɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindɔn'''<br /> |'''illaiɔn'''<br /> |'''illaindɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laib'''<br /> |'''landib'''<br /> |'''alanib'''<br /> |'''alanindib'''<br /> |'''lallaib'''<br /> |'''lallandib'''<br /> |'''ulauʃib'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindib'''<br /> |'''illaiib'''<br /> |'''illaindib'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''laɛw'''<br /> |'''landɛw'''<br /> |'''alanɛw'''<br /> |'''alanindɛw'''<br /> |'''lallaɛw'''<br /> |'''lallandɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindɛw'''<br /> |'''illaiɛw'''<br /> |'''illaindɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Habitual Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Continuous <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Past <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Past <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''lasa'''<br /> |'''landsa'''<br /> |'''alansa'''<br /> |'''alanindsa'''<br /> |'''lattsa'''<br /> |'''lattindsa'''<br /> |'''lallasa'''<br /> |'''lallandsa'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsa'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsa'''<br /> |'''illaisa'''<br /> |'''illaindsa'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''lamis'''<br /> |'''landmis'''<br /> |'''alanmis'''<br /> |'''alanindmis'''<br /> |'''lattmis'''<br /> |'''lattindmis'''<br /> |'''lallamis'''<br /> |'''lallandmis'''<br /> |'''ulauʃmis'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindmis'''<br /> |'''illaimis'''<br /> |'''illaindmis'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''lajes'''<br /> |'''landjes'''<br /> |'''alanjes'''<br /> |'''alanindjes'''<br /> |'''lattjes'''<br /> |'''lattindjes'''<br /> |'''lallajes'''<br /> |'''lallandjes'''<br /> |'''ulauʃjes'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindjes'''<br /> |'''illaijes'''<br /> |'''illaindjes'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''lasɔn'''<br /> |'''landsɔn'''<br /> |'''alansɔn'''<br /> |'''alanindsɔn'''<br /> |'''lattsɔn'''<br /> |'''lattindsɔn'''<br /> |'''lallasɔn'''<br /> |'''lallandsɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsɔn'''<br /> |'''illaisɔn'''<br /> |'''illaiindsɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laips'''<br /> |'''landips'''<br /> |'''alanips'''<br /> |'''alanindips'''<br /> |'''lattips'''<br /> |'''lattindips'''<br /> |'''lallaips'''<br /> |'''lallandips'''<br /> |'''ulauʃips'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindips'''<br /> |'''illaiips'''<br /> |'''illaindips'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''lasɛw'''<br /> |'''landsɛw'''<br /> |'''alansɛw'''<br /> |'''alanindsɛw'''<br /> |'''lattsɛw'''<br /> |'''lattindsɛw'''<br /> |'''lallasɛw'''<br /> |'''lallandsɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsɛw'''<br /> |'''illaisɛw'''<br /> |'''illaindsɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Indefinite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Progressive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Definite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Remote Future<br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''laos'''<br /> |'''landos'''<br /> |'''alanos'''<br /> |'''alanindos'''<br /> |'''lattos'''<br /> |'''lattindos'''<br /> |'''lallaos'''<br /> |'''lallandos'''<br /> |'''ulauʃos'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindos'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''laom'''<br /> |'''landom'''<br /> |'''alanom'''<br /> |'''alanindom'''<br /> |'''lattom'''<br /> |'''lattindom'''<br /> |'''lallaom'''<br /> |'''lallandom'''<br /> |'''ulauʃom'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindom'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''laoj'''<br /> |'''landoj'''<br /> |'''alanoj'''<br /> |'''alanindoj'''<br /> |'''lattoj'''<br /> |'''lattindoj'''<br /> |'''lallaoj'''<br /> |'''lallandoj'''<br /> |'''ulauʃoj'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindoj'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''laon'''<br /> |'''landon'''<br /> |'''alanon'''<br /> |'''alanindon'''<br /> |'''latton'''<br /> |'''lattindon'''<br /> |'''lallaon'''<br /> |'''lallandon'''<br /> |'''ulauʃon'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindon'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laob'''<br /> |'''landob'''<br /> |'''alanob'''<br /> |'''alanindob'''<br /> |'''lattob'''<br /> |'''lattindob'''<br /> |'''lallaob'''<br /> |'''lallandob'''<br /> |'''ulauʃob'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindob'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''laow'''<br /> |'''landow'''<br /> |'''alanow'''<br /> |'''alanindow'''<br /> |'''lattow'''<br /> |'''lattindow'''<br /> |'''lallaow'''<br /> |'''lallandow'''<br /> |'''ulauʃow'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindow'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|Verb '''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Present<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Continuous <br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Perfect <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Near Future <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Present <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussius'''<br /> |'''hussindus'''<br /> |'''ahsejnus'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindus'''<br /> |'''huzillaus'''<br /> |'''huzillandus'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃus'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindus'''<br /> |'''ihussejius'''<br /> |'''ihussejindus'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussiim'''<br /> |'''hussindim'''<br /> |'''ahsejnim'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindim'''<br /> |'''huzillaim'''<br /> |'''huzillandim'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃim'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindim'''<br /> |'''ihussejiim'''<br /> |'''ihussejindim'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussije'''<br /> |'''hussindje'''<br /> |'''ahsejnje'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindje'''<br /> |'''huzillaje'''<br /> |'''huzillandje'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃje'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindje'''<br /> |'''ihussejije'''<br /> |'''ihussejindje'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussiɔn'''<br /> |'''hussindɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillaɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillandɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejiɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejindɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiib'''<br /> |'''hussindib'''<br /> |'''ahsejnib'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindib'''<br /> |'''huzillaib'''<br /> |'''huzillandib'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃib'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindib'''<br /> |'''ihussejiib'''<br /> |'''ihussejindib'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussiɛw'''<br /> |'''hussindɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillaɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillandɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejiɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejindɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Habitual Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Continuous <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Past <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Past <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussisa'''<br /> |'''hussindsa'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsa'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsa'''<br /> |'''hustsa'''<br /> |'''hustindsa'''<br /> |'''huzillasa'''<br /> |'''huzillandsa'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsa'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsa'''<br /> |'''ihussejisa'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsa'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussimis'''<br /> |'''hussindmis'''<br /> |'''ahsejnmis'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindmis'''<br /> |'''hustmis'''<br /> |'''hustindmis'''<br /> |'''huzillamis'''<br /> |'''huzillandmis'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃmis'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindmis'''<br /> |'''ihussejimis'''<br /> |'''ihussejindmis'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussijes'''<br /> |'''hussindjes'''<br /> |'''ahsejnjes'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindjes'''<br /> |'''hustjes'''<br /> |'''hustindjes'''<br /> |'''huzillajes'''<br /> |'''huzillandjes'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃjes'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindjes'''<br /> |'''ihussejijes'''<br /> |'''ihussejindjes'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussisɔn'''<br /> |'''hussindsɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsɔn'''<br /> |'''hustsɔn'''<br /> |'''hustindsɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillasɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillandsɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejisɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiips'''<br /> |'''hussindips'''<br /> |'''ahsejnips'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindips'''<br /> |'''hustips'''<br /> |'''hustindips'''<br /> |'''huzillaips'''<br /> |'''huzillandips'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃips'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindips'''<br /> |'''ihussejiips'''<br /> |'''ihussejindips'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussisɛw'''<br /> |'''hussindsɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsɛw'''<br /> |'''hustsɛw'''<br /> |'''hustindsɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillasɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillandsɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejisɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Indefinite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Progressive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Definite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Remote Future<br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussios'''<br /> |'''hussindos'''<br /> |'''ahsejnos'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindos'''<br /> |'''hustos'''<br /> |'''hustindos'''<br /> |'''huzillaos'''<br /> |'''huzillandos'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃos'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindos'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussiom'''<br /> |'''hussindom'''<br /> |'''ahsejnom'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindom'''<br /> |'''hustom'''<br /> |'''hustindom'''<br /> |'''huzillaom'''<br /> |'''huzillandom'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃom'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindom'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussioj'''<br /> |'''hussindoj'''<br /> |'''ahsejnoj'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindoj'''<br /> |'''hustoj'''<br /> |'''hustindoj'''<br /> |'''huzillaoj'''<br /> |'''huzillandoj'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃoj'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindoj'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussion'''<br /> |'''hussindon'''<br /> |'''ahsejnon'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindon'''<br /> |'''huston'''<br /> |'''hustindon'''<br /> |'''huzillaon'''<br /> |'''huzillandon'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃon'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindon'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiob'''<br /> |'''hussindob'''<br /> |'''ahsejnob'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindob'''<br /> |'''hustob'''<br /> |'''hustindob'''<br /> |'''huzillaob'''<br /> |'''huzillandob'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃob'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindob'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussiow'''<br /> |'''hussindow'''<br /> |'''ahsejnow'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindow'''<br /> |'''hustow'''<br /> |'''hustindow'''<br /> |'''huzillaow'''<br /> |'''huzillandow'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃow'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindow'''<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Incorporation ===<br /> Besides complementing a verb with a noun phrase in the accusative (or some other) case, complements may be incorporated in the verb. This resource is particularly common with more frequent verb + complement combinations. Common verbs, especially indicating more fundamental actions such as &quot;eat&quot;, &quot;drink&quot;, &quot;take&quot;, &quot;speak&quot;, &quot;make&quot;, &quot;kill&quot; &amp;c. are more prone to this type of constructions, while more abstract verbs, as well as less frequently used verbs, tend to follow the more conventional verb + complement approach. <br /> <br /> When a complement is incorporated to a verb, it receives the prefix '''s-''' and is placed before the verb root. Irregularities are not uncommon. <br /> Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Regular Construction<br /> !Incorporation<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota ʃøga'''<br /> |'''sʃøgkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat meat&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota dabasa'''<br /> |'''sdabaskota'''<br /> |&quot;eat bread&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota drupala'''<br /> |'''sdrupalkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat vegetables&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota pinim'''<br /> |'''spinimkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat fruit&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''twiʃin halajna'''<br /> |'''shalantwiʃin'''<br /> |&quot;drink water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''twiʃin myndra'''<br /> |'''smyndtwiʃin'''<br /> |&quot;drink alcoholic beverage&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys menira'''<br /> |'''smeniraldesyys'''<br /> |&quot;take care of a child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys apsala'''<br /> |'''sapsaldesyys'''<br /> |&quot;take care of everything&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi tuglaa'''<br /> |'''stuglussi'''<br /> |&quot;hear a noise&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka pœrakʃa'''<br /> |'''spœrakʃaka'''<br /> |&quot;hunt a beast&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak tilmara'''<br /> |'''stilmatrak'''<br /> |&quot;make a mistake&quot;<br /> |}</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Conlangs/Dahur&diff=5383 Conlangs/Dahur 2026-09-13T01:57:55Z <p>Panglossa: /* Predicative Adjectives */</p> <hr /> <div>{{DISPLAYTITLE:Dahur}}<br /> {{RightTOC}}<br /> =Phonology=<br /> <br /> ==Vowels==<br /> <br /> Dahur vowels are usually short. Double vowels (ex.: aa, ee &amp;c.) may happen, but they are considered as simple vowel sequences.<br /> <br /> The following vowels qualities are distinguished: <br /> <br /> '''a''' '''e''' '''ɛ''' '''i''' '''o''' '''ɔ''' '''ø''' '''œ''' '''u''' '''y'''<br /> <br /> The diagram below shows the 10 vowels of Dahur.<br /> <br /> [[File:dahurvowels.png|link=]]<br /> <br /> In practice, the vowel /a/ may actually vary between /a/, /ä/ and /ɑ/.<br /> <br /> Merging of /ø/ and /œ/ is fairly common, especially in more informal contexts, as these two vowels mostly don't occur as minimal pair (except in a couple cases).<br /> <br /> ==Consonants==<br /> <br /> Dahur consonants are as follows: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;border-width:0px&quot;|<br /> !Bilabial<br /> !Labiodental<br /> !Alveolar<br /> !Postalveolar<br /> !Palatal<br /> !Velar<br /> !Glottal<br /> |-<br /> !Nasal<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''m'''<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''n'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Plosive<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''p''' '''b'''<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''t''' '''d'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''k''' '''g'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Sibilant fricative<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''s''' '''z'''<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''ʃ''' '''ʒ''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Non-sibilant fricative<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''f''' '''v''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''h'''<br /> |-<br /> !Approximant<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''j'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Tap/Flap/Trill<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''ɾ''' '''r''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Lateral Approx.<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''l'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The rhotic consonant ('''r''') is in free variation and may be realised either as a tap, a flap or a trill. The trill pronunciation (/r/) is more common at the beginning of a syllable, and even more so at the beginning of a word. The tap/flap pronunciation (/ɾ/) is more common in consonant clusters, especially after a plosive. <br /> <br /> In Dahur phonology, the combinations '''tr''' and '''kʃ''' count as single, independent consonants.<br /> <br /> ==Phonotactics==<br /> A syllable in Dahur must contain one vowel, which may be preceded and/or followed by any number of consonants. In practice, consonant clusters don't usually go beyond four consonants. For that account, '''kʃ''' and '''tɾ''' are always considered as single consonants. <br /> <br /> All consonant sequences are possible. However, in practice, some consonant combinations (ex. '''-hm-''', '''-tɾkʃ-''' &amp;c.) are rare.<br /> <br /> Some studies consider the existence of a glottal stop when a proper consonant is absent. This view is reflected in the writing, which has a special sign for the glottal stop / lack of a consonant. The last consonant of a syllable can be doubled. <br /> <br /> Examples of valid syllables: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''a'''<br /> | '''tɛ'''<br /> | '''en'''<br /> | '''wi'''<br /> | '''koj'''<br /> | '''gjɔ'''<br /> | '''pɾujn'''<br /> | '''kʃtɾa'''<br /> | '''fʃtlœmbz'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Stress==<br /> In the standard pronunciation, words are stressed on the next-to-last syllable. However, if the last syllable contains the consonant /tɾ/, it will be stressed.<br /> <br /> Ex.:<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''&lt;u&gt;ka&lt;/u&gt;nar''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/ˈka.nar/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''os&lt;u&gt;trøn&lt;/u&gt;dɛl''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/os.ˈtɾøn.dɛl/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''&lt;u&gt;tef&lt;/u&gt;ʃiv''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/ˈtef.ʃiv/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''da&lt;u&gt;sutɾ&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/daˈsutɾ/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''maʃkin&lt;u&gt;tɾod&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/maʃ.kinˈtɾod/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Doubled vowels in the last syllable may sound as a long, stressed vowel; however, they are actually two separate vowels, each one in a different syllable, with stress falling on the first one (or on the last, in case that syllable contains the consonant '''tr'''). It is not uncommon to hear an epenthetic '''h''', '''j''' or '''w''' between the two vowels.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kaj&lt;u&gt;na&lt;/u&gt;ar''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/kaj.ˈna.ar/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/kaj.ˈna.har/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> | '''pakisa&lt;u&gt;atr&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/pa.ki.sa.ˈatr/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/pa.ki.sa.ˈhatr/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> | '''tøndel&lt;u&gt;li&lt;/u&gt;in''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.in/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.jin/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.hin/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''talde&lt;u&gt;sy&lt;/u&gt;ys''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tal.de.ˈsy.ys/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tal.de.ˈsy.hys/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =Writing=<br /> <br /> [[Dahur script]] consists in an alphasyllabary consisting in separate letters indicating consonants, a combination of separate letters and diacritics to indicate vowels, as well as certain special letters for individual syllables.<br /> <br /> =Morphology=<br /> <br /> Dahur is a highly flexional language, with a strong presence of irregular forms.<br /> <br /> Nouns inflect for number, which is basically singular and plural, but there are also occurrences of dual (for things normally occurring in pairs) and singulative (for individual items of things usually found collectively). <br /> <br /> Nouns also inflect for case, usually: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, locative, instrumental, ergative and ablative. Instances of partitive and vocative are also found. The case called ergative is used basically for the agent of the passive voice.<br /> <br /> Adjectives show no agreement to nouns, and inflect for degree (comparatives of superiority, equality, inferiority; relative and absolute superlative).<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Nouns==<br /> <br /> <br /> === Class ===<br /> <br /> Dahurian nouns are divided in five classes, which can be compared to Latin or Greek declensions, as they consist in different inflection patterns, but may also be seen as a form of gender, as class is usually (but not always necessarily) related to the meaning of a noun. <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class 1<br /> |Living beings<br /> |-<br /> !Class 2<br /> |General objects<br /> |-<br /> !Class 3<br /> |Natural elements; insects<br /> |-<br /> !Class 4<br /> |Parts of human body; clothing<br /> |-<br /> !Class 5<br /> |Abstract nouns; traditional imaginary beings<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There are no morphological indications related to noun classes in the nominative singular. The differences appear along the inflection of nouns.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Number ===<br /> Nouns in Dahur have a singular and a plural. The plural ending varies according to noun class and to case. There is also a dual number, which is valid only for nouns normally occurring in pairs. Mass or collective nouns have a singulative inflection, but this is not very systematically indicated.<br /> <br /> <br /> So, for example:<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> !Dual<br /> !Singulative<br /> |-<br /> |class 1<br /> |'''grats'''<br /> &quot;boy&quot;<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> &quot;boys&quot;<br /> | -<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 2<br /> |'''kɛʃev'''<br /> &quot;hammer&quot;<br /> |'''kɛʃevlin'''<br /> &quot;hammers&quot;<br /> |'''kɛʃevs'''<br /> &quot;pair of hammers&quot; (traditionally used by blacksmiths)<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 3<br /> |'''halajn'''<br /> &quot;water&quot;<br /> |'''halejnn'''<br /> &quot;waters&quot; (i.e. in a flood)<br /> |'''halajns'''<br /> &quot;The Two Waters&quot; (the river Okanuma and the lake Kassanjas)<br /> |'''halajny'''<br /> &quot;a drop of water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |class 4<br /> |'''kanar'''<br /> &quot;eye&quot;<br /> |'''kanarni'''<br /> &quot;many eyes&quot; (mostly figuratively)<br /> |'''kanaris'''<br /> &quot;(two/both) eyes&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 4<br /> |'''kʃalim'''<br /> &quot;hair&quot;<br /> |'''kʃalimni'''<br /> &quot;(types of) hair&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |'''kʃalimy'''<br /> &quot;a (single) hair&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |class 5<br /> |'''astrønɛl'''<br /> &quot;idea&quot;<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> &quot;ideas&quot;<br /> |'''astrønɛls'''<br /> &quot;a couple ideas&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The plural in classes 1, 2 and 5 is usually regular, obtained with the respective suffixes ('''-en''', '''-lin''', '''-jan'''). <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 1<br /> |'''katlaj'''<br /> &quot;girlfriend&quot;<br /> |'''katlajen'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''dukʃatr'''<br /> &quot;boss&quot;<br /> |'''dukʃatren'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''egastɛv'''<br /> &quot;farmer&quot;<br /> |'''egastɛven'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 2<br /> |'''takoj'''<br /> &quot;pin&quot;<br /> |'''takojlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''uhpsan'''<br /> &quot;paper&quot;<br /> |'''uhpsanlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''dasutr'''<br /> &quot;document, file&quot;<br /> |'''dasutrlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 5<br /> |'''pɛktegal'''<br /> &quot;angel&quot;<br /> |'''pɛktegaljan'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ostrøndɛl'''<br /> &quot;interruption&quot;<br /> |'''ostrøndɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''piktaraʃ'''<br /> &quot;problem&quot;<br /> |'''piktaraʃjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In classes 3 and 4, besides the suffixes ('''-n''', '''-ni'''), most nouns suffer some sort of mutation, usually affecting only one vowel but non uncommonly consisting of more significative changes.<br /> <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 3<br /> |'''pakpaki'''<br /> &quot;louse&quot;<br /> |'''pakpɛkin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''pahalis'''<br /> &quot;leaf&quot;<br /> |'''pahaljen'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''tʃeptal'''<br /> &quot;cloud&quot;<br /> |'''tʃapatlin''', '''tʃaptlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 4<br /> |'''kraus'''<br /> &quot;ear&quot;<br /> |'''krojsni'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ɛmblew'''<br /> &quot;hat&quot;<br /> |'''ɛmbalni'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''krikter'''<br /> &quot;helmet&quot;<br /> |'''kruktni'''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Case ===<br /> Dahur nouns inflect for the following cases: <br /> * '''nominative''' (subject, predicative)<br /> * '''accusative''' (direct object, motion towards)<br /> * '''dative''' (indirect object)<br /> * '''genitive''' (possession, partitive, origin)<br /> * '''locative''' (location, placement)<br /> * '''instrumental''' (instrument, means, company)<br /> * '''ablative''' (adverbial)<br /> * '''ergative''' (agent of the passive voice)<br /> <br /> All cases except the nominative and the ergative can be used with prepositions.<br /> <br /> Certain nouns, mostly nouns indicating human beings, also show a vocative form, mostly formed with the ending '''-e''', but usually irregular. <br /> <br /> Certain nouns, for example nouns indicating mass or food, show a partitive case, usually formed with the ending '''-(i)t'''. <br /> <br /> <br /> === Inflection ===<br /> <br /> Noun declension in Dahur is quite regular, in terms of case and the less usual numbers, viz. the dual and the singulative.<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 1<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 2<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 3<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 4<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 5<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''-'''<br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-en'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-lin'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-n'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-is'''<br /> |'''-ni'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-an'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-lajn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-an'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-jas'''<br /> |'''-nja'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-un'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-lun'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-wan'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-ujs'''<br /> |'''-nu'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-ujn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''-ak'''<br /> |'''-ask'''<br /> |'''-ken'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ik'''<br /> |'''-isk'''<br /> |'''-link'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-aʃ'''<br /> |'''-ʃas'''<br /> |'''-ʃan'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-iʃ'''<br /> |'''-siʃ'''<br /> |'''-niʃ'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ik'''<br /> |'''-isk'''<br /> |'''-jank'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-emb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-limb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-emb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-bis'''<br /> |'''-nibb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-jamb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-nom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-lom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-nom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-joms'''<br /> |'''-njom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-njom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-nɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-lɛnv''', '''-lɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-nɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-jɛfs'''<br /> |'''-njɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-njɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-løtr'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-sjøtr'''<br /> |'''-trøjn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøjn'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> &lt;!---<br /> * The '''nominative''' case is the basic form of nouns.<br /> * The '''accusative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-a'''. <br /> * The '''dative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-si'''.<br /> * The '''genitive''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ak''' for animate intelligent beings, '''-iʃ''' for animals, '''-is''' for concrete objects and '''-ɔn''' for abstract things.<br /> * The '''locative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-us'''. With animate nouns, the locative can mean &quot;on&quot;, or &quot;with&quot;, as in &quot;carrying with&quot;. <br /> * The '''instrumental''' case is indicated by the enging '''-em''' for animate intelligent beings, '''-om''' for animals, '''-um''' for things.<br /> * The '''ergative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-øtr'''. <br /> * The '''ablative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ɛv'''. <br /> --&gt;<br /> <br /> When an ending starting with a vowel is applied, a final '''-i''' becomes '''-j-''', and a final '''-u''' becomes '''-w-'''; otherwise, an '''-h-''' is added. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''dula''' &quot;babysitter&quot;, '''dulahen''' &quot;babysitters&quot;<br /> * '''agdari''' &quot;prisoner&quot;, '''agdarjen''' &quot;prisoners&quot;<br /> * '''pakpaki''' &quot;louse&quot;, '''pakpakja''' &quot;louse (accus.)&quot;, '''pakpakjaʃ''' &quot;of a louse&quot;, '''pakpakjom''' &quot;by a louse&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> In the following tables, you have some examples of nouns of the various classes, fully inflected for number and case.<br /> <br /> * Class 1: '''grats''' &quot;boy&quot; <br /> * Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' &quot;hammer&quot; <br /> * Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' &quot;cloud&quot; <br /> * Class 4: '''kraus''' &quot;ear&quot; <br /> * Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' &quot;idea&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 1: '''grats''' &quot;boy&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''grats'''<br /> |'''gratss'''<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''gratsa'''<br /> |'''gratsas'''<br /> |'''gratsan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''gratsu'''<br /> |'''gratsus'''<br /> |'''gratsun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''gratsak'''<br /> |'''gratsask'''<br /> |'''gratsken'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''gratsebb'''<br /> |'''gratseps'''<br /> |'''gratsemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''gratsom'''<br /> |'''gratsoms'''<br /> |'''gratsnom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''gratsɛv'''<br /> |'''gratsɛfs'''<br /> |'''gratsnɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''gratsøtr'''<br /> |'''gratssøtr'''<br /> |'''gratsetrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Vocative<br /> |'''gratse'''<br /> |'''gratses'''<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' &quot;hammer&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''kɛʃev'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevs'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlin'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''kɛʃeva'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevas'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlajn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''kɛʃevu'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevus'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''kɛʃevik'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevisk'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlink'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''kɛʃevebb'''<br /> |'''kɛʃeveps'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlimb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''kɛʃevom'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevoms'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''kɛʃevɛv'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevɛfs'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlɛnv''', '''kɛʃevlɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''kɛʃevøtr'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevsøtr'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevløtr'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' &quot;cloud&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''tʃeptal'''<br /> |'''tʃeptals'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlin'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''tʃeptala'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalas'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlijan''', '''tʃaptljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''tʃeptalu'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalus'''<br /> |'''tʃaptliwan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''tʃeptalaʃ'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalʃas'''<br /> |'''tʃaptliʃan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''tʃeptalebb'''<br /> |'''tʃeptaleps'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlijemb''', '''tʃaptljemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''tʃeptalom'''<br /> |'''tʃeptaloms'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlinom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''tʃeptalɛv'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalɛfs'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlinɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''tʃeptaløtr'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalsøtr'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlitrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''tʃeptalt'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalts'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlint'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 4: '''kraus''' &quot;ear&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''kraus'''<br /> |'''krausis'''<br /> |'''krojsni'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''krausa'''<br /> |'''krausjas'''<br /> |'''krojsnja'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''krausu'''<br /> |'''krausujs'''<br /> |'''krojsnu'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''krausiʃ'''<br /> |'''kraussiʃ'''<br /> |'''krojsniʃ'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''krausebb'''<br /> |'''krauseps'''<br /> |'''krojsnibb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''krausom'''<br /> |'''krausoms'''<br /> |'''krojsnjom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''krausɛv'''<br /> |'''krausɛfs'''<br /> |'''krojsnjɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''krausøtr'''<br /> |'''krausjøtr'''<br /> |'''krojstrøjn'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' &quot;idea&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''astrønɛls'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''astrønɛla'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlas'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''astrønɛlu'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlus'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlujn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''astrønɛlik'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlisk'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljank'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''astrønɛlebb'''<br /> |'''astrønɛleps'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljamb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''astrønɛlom'''<br /> |'''astrønɛloms'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlnjom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''astrønɛlɛv'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlɛfs'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlnjɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''astrønɛløtr'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlsøtr'''<br /> |'''astrønɛltrøjn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''astrønɛlt'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlts'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljant'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Articles ==<br /> <br /> === Definite Article === <br /> <br /> The definite article inflects for case and number, and is quite irregular. <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> !Singulative <br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''tru'''<br /> |'''gas'''<br /> |'''tann'''<br /> |'''try'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''na'''<br /> |'''ga'''<br /> |'''ta'''<br /> |'''ny'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''kʃu'''<br /> |'''gu'''<br /> |'''tun'''<br /> |'''kʃu'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''kis'''<br /> |'''gak'''<br /> |'''tak'''<br /> |'''kis'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''debb'''<br /> |'''gebb'''<br /> |'''tebb'''<br /> |'''debb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''trom'''<br /> |'''gom'''<br /> |'''tom'''<br /> |'''trom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative <br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |'''gɛv'''<br /> |'''tɛv'''<br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''trø'''<br /> |'''gøtr'''<br /> |'''tøtr'''<br /> |'''trø'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Indefinite Article === <br /> <br /> Dahur has no proper indefinite article. <br /> <br /> If it's really necessary to mark a noun phrase as indefinite, an indefinite pronoun may be used. The most common is '''lum''' (invariable), meaning &quot;some&quot;, &quot;a certain&quot; &amp;c.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Prepositions ==<br /> <br /> Prepositions in Dahur require the noun in one of the following cases: <br /> <br /> * accusative<br /> * dative<br /> * genitive<br /> * ablative<br /> * instrumental<br /> * locative<br /> <br /> The nominative and the ergative are '''never''' used with prepositions. <br /> <br /> In the table below you have the most common Dahur prepositions: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Preposition<br /> !Case<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''dun'''<br /> |''locative'', ''accusative of movement''<br /> |inside<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''yin'''<br /> |''dative''<br /> |for, in behalf of<br /> |-<br /> |''accusative''<br /> |towards<br /> |-<br /> |'''ari''', '''ar'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |from, out of<br /> |-<br /> |'''yuʃ'''<br /> |''genitive'', ''ablative''<br /> |because of<br /> |-<br /> |'''vøj'''<br /> |''locative''<br /> |through<br /> |-<br /> |'''syn'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |near<br /> |-<br /> |'''kʃe'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |since, ago<br /> |-<br /> |'''pɛn'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |besides, next to<br /> |-<br /> |'''lujg'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |in front of<br /> |-<br /> |'''mœh'''<br /> |''ablative''<br /> |without<br /> |-<br /> |'''sto'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |on, on top of<br /> |-<br /> |'''krɔj'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |under<br /> |-<br /> |'''tjɛs'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |before (time)<br /> |-<br /> |'''gwaj'''<br /> |''accusative''<br /> |after (time)<br /> |-<br /> |'''fyj'''<br /> |''ablative''<br /> |during<br /> |-<br /> |'''vlen'''<br /> |''instrumental''<br /> |despite<br /> |-<br /> |'''uhk'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |except<br /> |-<br /> |'''uzd'''<br /> |''dative''<br /> |instead of<br /> |-<br /> |'''blas'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |behind<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> * '''yin na hedana''' &quot;towards the house&quot;<br /> * '''dun na hedana''' &quot;into the house&quot;<br /> * '''ar kis hedanik''' &quot;from the house&quot;, &quot;out of the house&quot;<br /> * '''syn debb hedanebb''' &quot;near the house&quot;<br /> * '''syn na hedana''' &quot;going near of the house&quot;<br /> * '''pɛn debb hedanebb''' &quot;besides the house&quot;, &quot;next to the house&quot;<br /> * '''pɛn na hedana''' &quot;going next to the house&quot;<br /> * '''lujg debb hedanebb''' &quot;in front to the house&quot;<br /> * '''lujg na hedana''' &quot;going to the front of the house&quot;<br /> * '''mœh dɛv hedanɛv''' &quot;without the house&quot;<br /> * '''sto debb hedanebb''' &quot;on top of the house&quot;<br /> * '''sto na hedana''' &quot;going onto (the top of) the house&quot;<br /> * '''krɔj debb hedanebb''' &quot;under the house&quot;<br /> * '''uzd kʃu hedanu''' &quot;instead of the house&quot;<br /> * '''blas debb hedanebb''' &quot;behind the house&quot;<br /> * '''blas na hedana''' &quot;going behind the house&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> == Adjectives ==<br /> <br /> === Attributive Adjectives ===<br /> Attributive adjectives in Dahur are invariable and come before the noun. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''fɛren grats''' &quot;a smart boy&quot;<br /> * '''duʃ halajn''' &quot;clean water&quot;<br /> * '''selak kanaris''' &quot;pretty eyes&quot;<br /> <br /> A few attributes may be expressed by affixes to the noun, instead of the separate adjective. The most common ones are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar'''<br /> |'''-os''' <br /> (usually deleting the last vowel of the original noun)<br /> |&quot;big&quot;, &quot;large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr'''<br /> |'''-in-''' <br /> (before the last vowel of the or. noun)<br /> |&quot;small&quot;, &quot;little&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani'''<br /> |'''-(t)ta-''' <br /> (before the second vowel of the or. noun)<br /> |&quot;good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''<br /> |'''-aar'''<br /> |&quot;bad&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !With Adjective<br /> !With Affixed Form<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''piktarʃos''' <br /> |&quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''piktarinaʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a little problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''attastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a good idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlaar'''<br /> |&quot;a bad idea&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Certain adjectives have a special, shortened form, which is prefixed to nouns when used attributively. <br /> The most common ones are: <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar'''<br /> |'''nah-''' <br /> |&quot;big&quot;, &quot;large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr'''<br /> |'''ki-''' <br /> (doubles the initial consonant of the noun)<br /> |&quot;small&quot;, &quot;little&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani'''<br /> |'''suw-''' ('''suww-''' before vowels)<br /> |&quot;good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''<br /> |'''dag-''' ('''dagg-''' before vowels)<br /> |&quot;bad&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin'''<br /> |'''sin-''' <br /> |&quot;new&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ'''<br /> |'''dom-''' <br /> |&quot;old&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''mahhalis'''<br /> |'''mah-''' <br /> |&quot;ancient&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''', '''makʃølin'''<br /> |'''møkʃ-''' <br /> |&quot;important&quot;, &quot;great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan'''<br /> |'''tos-''', '''tan-''' <br /> |&quot;beautiful&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki'''<br /> |'''killi-''' <br /> |&quot;false&quot;, &quot;fake&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !With Adjective<br /> !With Prefix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''nahpiktaraʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''kippiktaraʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a small problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''suwwastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a good idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''daggastrønɛl'''<br /> |&quot;a bad idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin dasutr'''<br /> |'''sindasutr''' <br /> |&quot;a new document&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ hedan'''<br /> |'''domhedan''' <br /> |&quot;an old house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''mahhalis kataʃtevan'''<br /> |'''mahkataʃtevan''' <br /> |&quot;an ancient civilization&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen dasutr''', '''makʃølin dasutr'''<br /> |'''møkʃdasutr''' <br /> |&quot;an important document&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen astrønɛl''', '''makʃølin astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''møkʃastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a great idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan dummal'''<br /> |'''tosdummal''', '''tandummal''' <br /> |&quot;a beautiful song&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki bɔrakʃ'''<br /> |'''killibɔrakʃ''' <br /> |&quot;false news&quot;, &quot;fake news&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Predicative Adjectives ===<br /> <br /> An adjective used in predicative function is invariable. Only the full forms of adjectives can be used predicatively. <br /> <br /> Usually a linking verb is employed. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru astrønɛl laje makʃølen.''' || The idea is great.<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru grats alanje befitra.''' || The boy is tired.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is also the possibility of turning adjectives into verbs. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru astrønɛl makʃølnaje.''' || The idea is great.<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru grats abefitranje.''' || The boy is tired.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The most common way to make an adjective into a verb, implying the idea of &quot;be&quot;, is the suffix '''-a-''', which may cause some change in the last syllable of the original adjective. If the adjective already ends in '''-a''', there is no change. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''' <br /> &quot;great&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølna''' <br /> &quot;be great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;be tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani''' <br /> &quot;good&quot;<br /> |'''suwanja''' <br /> &quot;be good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''' <br /> &quot;bad&quot;<br /> |'''daggusa''' <br /> &quot;be bad&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin''' <br /> &quot;new&quot;<br /> |'''sulna''', '''sinna''' <br /> &quot;be new&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ''' <br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dɛtra''' <br /> &quot;be old&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan''' <br /> &quot;beautiful&quot;<br /> |'''tossana''', '''tosna''' <br /> &quot;be beautiful&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''trapter''' <br /> &quot;unique&quot;<br /> |'''traptra''' <br /> &quot;be unique&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃɔtma''' <br /> &quot;sure&quot;, &quot;certain&quot;<br /> |'''ʃɔtama''' <br /> &quot;be sure&quot;, &quot;be certain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kanikli''' <br /> &quot;appropriate&quot;<br /> |'''kankilja''' <br /> &quot;be appropriate&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tubbar''' <br /> &quot;white&quot;<br /> |'''tubabra''' <br /> &quot;be white&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kindis''' <br /> &quot;clear&quot;<br /> |'''kinitsa''' <br /> &quot;be clear&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''turu'''<br /> &quot;wrong&quot;<br /> |'''turva''', '''terva'''<br /> &quot;be wrong&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''divlaas'''<br /> &quot;sick, ill&quot;<br /> |'''dulaasa'''<br /> &quot;be sick, be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tadʒon'''<br /> &quot;pleased&quot;<br /> |'''todʒna'''<br /> &quot;be pleased&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''eskataʃi'''<br /> &quot;acquainted&quot;<br /> |'''eskataʃʃa''', '''eskatʃa'''<br /> &quot;be acquainted&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Another suffix is '''-(a)st(a)-''', meaning &quot;to get&quot; or &quot;to become&quot;. The first optional '''-a-''' appears when necessary, to avoid unsuitable consonant clusters, while the final '''-a''' is only used in the infinitive form of the verb - i.e., without any suffixes. There are some irregular formations.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''' <br /> &quot;great&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølnasta''' <br /> &quot;become great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitrasta''' <br /> &quot;get tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar''' <br /> &quot;big, large&quot;<br /> |'''nahasta''', '''narasta''' <br /> &quot;get big&quot;, &quot;increase&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr''' <br /> &quot;little, small&quot;<br /> |'''kitrasta''', '''katrasta''', '''kirrasta''' <br /> &quot;get smaller&quot;, &quot;decrease&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani''' <br /> &quot;good&quot;<br /> |'''suwanasta'''<br /> &quot;become good&quot;<br /> <br /> '''suwasta''', '''sawasta''', '''suwnasta''' <br /> <br /> &quot;get better&quot;, &quot;improve&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''' , '''daggussa'''<br /> &quot;bad&quot;<br /> |'''daggusasta''', '''daggussasta''' <br /> &quot;become bad&quot;<br /> <br /> '''daggasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get worse&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ'''<br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛsta'''<br /> &quot;become old&quot;<br /> <br /> '''dotrasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get older&quot;, &quot;to age&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan'''<br /> &quot;beautiful<br /> |'''tossanasta'''<br /> &quot;become beautiful&quot;<br /> <br /> '''tossasta''', '''tosnasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get prettier&quot;, &quot;beautify&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki'''<br /> &quot;false&quot;, &quot;fake&quot;<br /> |'''ablikasta'''<br /> &quot;become invalid&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''divlaas'''<br /> &quot;sick, ill&quot;<br /> |'''dulaasta'''<br /> &quot;be sick, be ill&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''eskataʃi'''<br /> &quot;acquainted&quot;<br /> |'''eskatʃasta'''<br /> &quot;get acquainted&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> A few other suffixes perform similar tasks, with more specific meanings. These are usually quite regular. The most productive among these suffixes are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-we'''<br /> |&quot;to remain&quot;, &quot;still be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-kas'''<br /> |&quot;to seem&quot;, &quot;to appear&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-ʃyn'''<br /> |&quot;to pretend to be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-dobb(a)-'''<br /> |&quot;to cease to be&quot;, &quot;to be no longer&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-guj'''<br /> |&quot;to be a little bit&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''nøssar''' <br /> &quot;calm&quot;<br /> |'''nøssarwe''' &quot;remain calm&quot;, &quot;keep calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarkaʃ''' &quot;seem/appear calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarʃyn''' &quot;pretend to be calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssardobba''' &quot;cease to be calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarguj''' &quot;be a little calm&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ''' <br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛkaʃ''' &quot;seem/appear old&quot;<br /> <br /> '''dotrɛguj''' &quot;be a little old&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Comparative === <br /> The comparative of superiority of an adjective can be made by adding the suffix '''-ju''' to the stem. This suffix doubles a preceeding consonant, or becomes '''-jju''' when preceeded by a vowel. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''fɛrennju grats''' &quot;a smarter boy&quot;<br /> * '''duʃʃju halajn''' &quot;cleaner water&quot;<br /> * '''selakkju kanaris''' &quot;prettier eyes&quot;<br /> * '''naharrju piktaraʃ''' &quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> * '''kittrju piktaraʃ''' &quot;a little problem&quot; <br /> * '''suwanijju astrønɛl''' &quot;a better idea&quot;<br /> * '''daggussju''' / '''daggussajju astrønɛl''' &quot;a worse idea&quot;<br /> * '''dotrɛjju pɛten''' &quot;an older book&quot;<br /> <br /> Comparative adjectives may be turned into verbs regularly with the suffix '''-a''', which then becomes '''-wa'''. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølennju''' <br /> &quot;greater&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølennjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be greater&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitrajju''' <br /> &quot;more tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitrajjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be more tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwanijju''' <br /> &quot;better&quot;<br /> |'''suwanijjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be better&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulinnju''' <br /> &quot;newer&quot;<br /> |'''sulinnjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be newer&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛjju''' <br /> &quot;older&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛjjuwa'''<br /> &quot;be older&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossannju''' <br /> &quot;more beautiful&quot;<br /> |'''tossannjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be more beautiful&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The complement of a comparison, corresponding to the conjunction &quot;than&quot;, is placed in the ablative case. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''Nuv pɛten laej suwanijju tuhafɛv.''' &quot;This book is better than that one&quot;<br /> * '''Nuv pɛten suwanijjuwaej tuhafɛv.''' (idem)<br /> * '''Tru dukʃatr laej dotrɛjju dɛv egastɛvɛv.''' &quot;The boss is older than the farmer&quot;<br /> * '''Tru dukʃatr dotrɛjjuwaej dɛv egastɛvɛv.''' (idem)<br /> <br /> == Numerals ==<br /> The basic cardinal numbers are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |0 || '''kal''', '''kahtral'''<br /> |-<br /> |1 || '''mihen'''<br /> |-<br /> |2 || '''dahas'''<br /> |-<br /> |3 || '''travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |4 || '''gazen'''<br /> |-<br /> |5 || '''kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |6 || '''pinjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |7 || '''høtak'''<br /> |-<br /> |8 || '''magɛl'''<br /> |-<br /> |9 || '''donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |10 || '''zɛhɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |11 || '''zɛhɛv mihen''', '''zɛvhen'''<br /> |-<br /> |12 || '''zɛhɛv dahas''', '''zɛvdas'''<br /> |-<br /> |13 || '''zɛhɛv travis''', '''zɛvtras'''<br /> |-<br /> |14 || '''zɛhɛv gazen''', '''zɛvzen'''<br /> |-<br /> |15 || '''zɛhɛv kɛʃav''', '''zɛvkʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |16 || '''zɛhɛv pinjan''', '''zɛvpan'''<br /> |-<br /> |17 || '''zɛhɛv høtak''','''zɛvhøk'''<br /> |-<br /> |18 || '''zɛhɛv magɛl''', '''zɛvmal'''<br /> |-<br /> |19 || '''zɛhɛv donwaʒ''', '''zɛvdaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |20 || '''dahassɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |30 || '''travissɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |40 || '''gazennɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |50 || '''kɛʃavvɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |60 || '''pinjannɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |70 || '''høtakkɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |80 || '''magɛllɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |90 || '''donwaʒʒɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |100 || '''lakin'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,000 || '''tatrimi'''<br /> |-<br /> |10,000 || '''zɛhɛv tatrimi'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Numbers are composed by joining the base units above, from bigger to lower. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |23 || '''dahassɛv travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |45 || '''gazennɛv kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |67 || '''pinjannɛv høtak'''<br /> |-<br /> |89 || '''magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |123 || '''lakin dahassɛv travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |456 || '''gazen lakin kɛʃavvɛv pinjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |789 || '''høtak lakin magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,234 || '''tatrimi dahas lakin travissɛv gazen'''<br /> |-<br /> |5,678 || '''kɛʃav tatrimi pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl'''<br /> |-<br /> |12,345 || '''zɛvdas tatrimi travis lakin gazennɛv kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |678,910 || '''pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl tatrimi donwaʒ lakin zɛhɛv'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Ordinal numbers are created with the suffix '''-iki'''. Ex.: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |1st || '''miheniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |2nd || '''dahasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |3rd || '''travisiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |4th || '''gazeniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |5th || '''kɛʃaviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |6th || '''pinjaniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |7th || '''høtakiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |8th || '''magɛliki'''<br /> |-<br /> |9th || '''donwaʒiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |10th || '''zɛhɛviki''', '''zɛhviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |11th || '''zɛvheniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |12th || '''zɛvdasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |13th || '''zɛvtrasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |14th || '''zɛvzeniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |15th || '''zɛvkʃaviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |16th || '''zɛvpaniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |17th || '''zɛvhøkiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |18th || '''zɛvmaliki'''<br /> |-<br /> |19th || '''zɛvdaʒiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |20th || '''dahassɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |30th || '''travissɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |40th || '''gazennɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |50th || '''kɛʃavvɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |60th || '''pinjannɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |70th || '''høtakkɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |80th || '''magɛllɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |90th || '''donwaʒʒɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |100th || '''lakiniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,000th || '''tatrimiiki'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Pronouns ==<br /> <br /> === Personal Pronouns ===<br /> Personal Pronouns in Dahur indicate person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and number (singular, dual, plural).<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|1st Person<br /> |'''dɛ''' &quot;I&quot; , &quot;me&quot;<br /> |'''ʃes''' &quot;we both&quot;<br /> |'''ʃɛn''' &quot;we&quot;, &quot;us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''dɛ'''<br /> |'''ʃes'''<br /> |'''ʃɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''dɛa''', '''da'''<br /> |'''ʃeas''', '''ʃas'''<br /> |'''ʃan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''dɛw''', '''du'''<br /> |'''ʃeus''', '''ʃews''', '''ʃus'''<br /> |'''ʃɛun''', '''ʃɛwn''', '''ʃun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''dɛk'''<br /> |'''ʃesk'''<br /> |'''ʃɛkɛn''', '''ʃkɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''dɛbb'''<br /> |'''ʃeps'''<br /> |'''ʃɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''dɛm'''<br /> |'''ʃems'''<br /> |'''ʃɛom''', '''ʃom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |'''ʃɛfs'''<br /> |'''ʃɛɛv''', '''ʃɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''dɛjøtr''', '''dɛtr'''<br /> |'''ʃesøtr'''<br /> |'''ʃɛtrøn''', '''ʃtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''dɛt'''<br /> |'''ʃets'''<br /> |'''ʃɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|2nd Person<br /> |'''hej''' &quot;you (sg.), thou&quot;<br /> |'''kwes''' &quot;you both&quot;<br /> |'''kwɛn''' &quot;you (pl.)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''hej'''<br /> |'''kwes'''<br /> |'''kwɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''heja''', '''ja'''<br /> |'''kweas''', '''kwas'''<br /> |'''kwɛan''', '''kwan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''heju''', '''ju'''<br /> |'''kweus'''<br /> |'''kwɛun''', '''kun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''heik''', '''hejik'''<br /> |'''kwesk'''<br /> |'''kwɛnek''', '''kwɛnk'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''heibb''', '''hibb'''<br /> |'''kweps'''<br /> |'''kwɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''heim''', '''him'''<br /> |'''kwems'''<br /> |'''kwɛom''', '''kwɛm''', '''kwom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''hejɛv''', '''jɛv'''<br /> |'''kwɛfs'''<br /> |'''kwɛɛv''', '''kwɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''hejøtr''', '''hjøtr'''<br /> |'''kwesøtr'''<br /> |'''kwɛtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Vocative<br /> |'''heje'''<br /> |'''kwejes'''<br /> |'''kwɛjɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''hɛt'''<br /> |'''kwets'''<br /> |'''kwɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|3rd Person<br /> |'''nar''' &quot;he&quot;, &quot;she&quot;, &quot;it&quot;<br /> |'''ras''' &quot;they both&quot;<br /> |'''ren''' &quot;they&quot;, &quot;them&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''nar'''<br /> |'''ras'''<br /> |'''rɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''nara''', '''ra'''<br /> |'''ras'''<br /> |'''rɛan''', '''ran'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''naru''', '''ru'''<br /> |'''raus''', '''raws''', '''rus'''<br /> |'''rɛun''', '''rɛwn''', '''run'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''narɛk''', '''rɛk'''<br /> |'''resk'''<br /> |'''rɛkɛn''', '''ɛrken'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''narebb''', '''rebb'''<br /> |'''reps'''<br /> |'''rɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''narom''', '''rom'''<br /> |'''rems'''<br /> |'''rɛnom''', '''rom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''narɛv''', '''rɛv'''<br /> |'''rɛfs'''<br /> |'''rɛɛv''', '''rɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''narøtr''', '''røtr'''<br /> |'''resøtr'''<br /> |'''rɛtrøn''', '''ɛrtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''rɛt'''<br /> |'''rets'''<br /> |'''rɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The '''genitive''' forms work as possessive pronouns. In that case, the definite article is optional. Ex.: <br /> * '''tru dɛk astrønɛl''', '''dɛk astrønɛl''' &quot;my idea&quot;<br /> * '''na heik kʃalima''', '''heik kʃalima''' &quot;your hair (accus.)&quot;<br /> * '''trom narɛk kɛʃevom''', '''narɛk kɛʃevom''' &quot;with his/her hammer (instr.)&quot;<br /> * '''tu dɛk menirun''', '''dɛk menirun''' &quot;to my children (dat.)&quot;<br /> <br /> Object pronouns usually come before the verb. The shorter, unstressed version is preferred. Ex.: <br /> * '''Ja angenus.''' &quot;I can see you (sing.).&quot;<br /> * '''Kwas angenus.''' &quot;I can see you two.&quot;<br /> * '''Kwan angenus.''' &quot;I can see you (pl.).&quot;<br /> * '''Ra angenus.''' &quot;I can see it/him/her.&quot;<br /> * '''Ras angenus.''' &quot;I can see them both.&quot;<br /> * '''Ran angenus.''' &quot;I can see them.&quot;<br /> * '''Da angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see me.&quot;<br /> * '''ʃas angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see us both.&quot;<br /> * '''ʃan angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see us.&quot;<br /> <br /> An object pronoun may also appear after the verb. In that case, the preference is for the longer, stressed versions. Ex.:<br /> * '''Angenus ja/heja.''' &quot;I can see you (sing.).&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus kweas/kwas.''' &quot;I can see you two.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus kwɛan/kwan.''' &quot;I can see you (pl.).&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus nara/ra.''' &quot;I can see it/him/her.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus ras.''' &quot;I can see them both.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus rɛan/ran.''' &quot;I can see them.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej dɛa/da.''' &quot;He/she can see me.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej ʃeas/ʃas.''' &quot;He/she can see us both.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej ʃan.''' &quot;He/she can see us.&quot;<br /> <br /> The most common case for a verb complement is the accusative. However, verbs may require different cases. Ex.: <br /> * '''Kun dagsuttoj!''' &quot;It will harm you!&quot; / &quot;It will be harmful to you!&quot; ('''dagusta''' &quot;harm, be harmful&quot; + dat.)<br /> * '''Ja/Ju darʃinɔn.''' &quot;We trust you.&quot; ('''darʃin''' &quot;trust&quot; + acc./dat.)<br /> * '''Poglattindsa narɛv/rɛv''' &quot;I didn't use it.&quot; ('''poglar''' &quot;use&quot; + abl.)<br /> * '''Ra twiʃnettmis.''' &quot;You drank it (all).&quot; / '''Rɛt twiʃnettmis.''' &quot;You drank (some of) it.&quot; '''twiʃin''' &quot;drink&quot; +acc. (whole), +part. (specific amount)<br /> <br /> === Demonstrative Pronouns ===<br /> The main demonstrative pronouns are: <br /> <br /> * '''nuv''' &quot;this, these&quot;<br /> * '''tuhaf''' &quot;that, those&quot;<br /> <br /> When accompanying a noun, they behave as adjectives and are not inflected. <br /> <br /> When used on their own, they stand as nouns and are inflected according to the class of the intended noun. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''Nuv grats laej fɛrennju nuvɛv.''' &quot;This boy is smarter than this one.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> === Interrogative Pronouns ===<br /> <br /> === Indefinite Pronouns ===<br /> <br /> === Relative Pronoun ===<br /> The main relative pronoun in Dahur is '''jao''', as shown in the following table. <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''jao'''<br /> |'''jes'''<br /> |'''jen'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''jaa''', '''ja'''<br /> |'''jeas''', '''jas'''<br /> |'''jaan''', '''jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''jau''', '''jaw'''<br /> |'''jeus''', '''jews'''<br /> |'''jeun''', '''jewn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''jak'''<br /> |'''jesk'''<br /> |'''jenk'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''jaebb'''<br /> |'''jaeps'''<br /> |'''jaemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''jaom'''<br /> |'''jaoms'''<br /> |'''jaom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''jaɛv'''<br /> |'''jaɛfs'''<br /> |'''janɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''jaøtr'''<br /> |'''jasøtr'''<br /> |'''jatrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> | - <br /> |'''jets'''<br /> |'''jent'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The pronoun agrees in number with the antecedent, but its case is determined by its function in the subordinate clause. Ex.:<br /> * '''tru grats jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;the boy (nom.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''na gratsa jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;the boy (accus.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''kʃu gratsu jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;to the boy (dat.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''kis gratsak jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;of the boy (gen.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''trø gratsøtr jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;by the boy (erg.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''tann gratsen jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;the boys (nom.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''ta gratsan jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;the boys (accus.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tun gratsun jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;to the boys (dat.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tak gratsken jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr gratsetrøn jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tru grats jaa kahettsa''' &quot;the boy (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''na gratsa jaa kahettsa''' &quot;the boy (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''kʃu gratsu jaa kahettsa''' &quot;to the boy (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''kis gratsak jaa kahettsa''' &quot;of the boy (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''trø gratsøtr jaa kahettsa''' &quot;by the boy (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tann gratsen jaan kahettsa''' &quot;the boys (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''ta gratsan jaan kahettsa''' &quot;the boys (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tun gratsun jaan kahettsa''' &quot;to the boys (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tak gratsken jaan kahettsa''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr gratsetrøn jaan kahettsa''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> <br /> Besides this pronoun, relative clauses may also be formed with participles. <br /> <br /> Ex.:<br /> <br /> * '''tru ateʃfanur grats''' &quot;the boy (nom.) who is running away&quot; <br /> * '''na ateʃfanur gratsa''' &quot;the boy (accus.) who is running away&quot; <br /> * '''tak ateʃfanur gratsken''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) who are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tru dɛtr kahettek grats''', '''tru grats dɛtr kahettek''' &quot;the boy (nom.) whom I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr dɛtr kahettek gratsetrøn''', '''tøtr gratsetrøn dɛtr kahettek''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) whom I saw&quot;<br /> <br /> == Verbs ==<br /> <br /> === Finite Forms ===<br /> <br /> Verbs in Dahur have different stems indicating aspect. The conjugation uses different sets of endings to indicate tense or time. <br /> <br /> The basic verb stems are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Aspect<br /> !Meaning<br /> !Form<br /> |-<br /> |Generic<br /> |''verbal idea without a specific context, time or aspect''<br /> |the basic stem of the verb<br /> |-<br /> |Cursive (Progressive; Continuous)<br /> |''action ongoing at the moment of reference<br /> |prefix '''a-''' and suffix '''-(a)n-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Aorist<br /> |''a complete or punctual action''<br /> |suffix '''-(e)tt-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Perfect<br /> |''the result of an action that happened before the reference time''<br /> |suffix '''-(l)l(a)-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Unrealised (Future)<br /> |''action as not realised in relation to the reference time''<br /> |prefix '''u-''' and suffix '''-(u)ʃ-''' <br /> |-<br /> |Conditional<br /> |''irrealis, usually an action depending on another''<br /> |prefix '''i-''' (doubling the initial consonant) and suffix '''-i-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Stem formation is often irregular. <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Generic<br /> !Cursive<br /> !Aorist<br /> !Perfect<br /> !Unrealised<br /> !Conditional <br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmal-'''<br /> |'''akʃmalan-'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalett-'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalla-'''<br /> |'''ukaʃmaluʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkaʃmali-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''la-'''<br /> |'''alan-'''<br /> |'''latt-'''<br /> |'''lalla-'''<br /> |'''ulauʃ-'''<br /> |'''illai-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''wennin''' &quot;live&quot; <br /> |'''wennin-'''<br /> |'''awann-'''<br /> |'''wennett-'''<br /> |'''wennilla-'''<br /> |'''uwenninʃ-'''<br /> |'''iwennini-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadra-'''<br /> |'''agandran-'''<br /> |'''gadrett-'''<br /> |'''gadralla-'''<br /> |'''ugadruʃ-'''<br /> |'''iggadri-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''tefʃiv''' &quot;flee&quot;<br /> |'''tefʃiv-'''<br /> |'''ateʃfan-'''<br /> |'''tefʃivett-'''<br /> |'''tefʃivla-'''<br /> |'''utefʃivuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittefʃivi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maʃkintɾod''' &quot;represent&quot;<br /> |'''maʃkintɾod-'''<br /> |'''amaʃkintɾon-'''<br /> |'''maʃkintɾott-'''<br /> |'''maʃkintɾolla-'''<br /> |'''umaʃkintɾotʃ-'''<br /> |'''immaʃkintɾodi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kajnaar''' &quot;jump&quot;<br /> |'''kajnaar-'''<br /> |'''akajnaan-'''<br /> |'''kajnerett-'''<br /> |'''kajnaalla-'''<br /> |'''ukajnaaruʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkajnaari-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys''' &quot;take care of&quot;<br /> |'''taldesyys-'''<br /> |'''ataldesyyn-'''<br /> |'''taldesyyst-'''<br /> |'''taldesyyll-'''<br /> |'''utaldesyyʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittaldesyysi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kota-'''<br /> |'''ankon-'''<br /> |'''kotatt-'''<br /> |'''kekolla-'''<br /> |'''ukotuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkoti-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussi-'''<br /> |'''ahsejn-'''<br /> |'''hust-'''<br /> |'''huzilla-'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ihusseji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''ken-''', '''kena-'''<br /> |'''angen-'''<br /> |'''kahett-'''<br /> |'''kenalla-''', '''kralla-'''<br /> |'''ukunuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkeni-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''mend''' &quot;become&quot;<br /> |'''mend-'''<br /> |'''amdan-'''<br /> |'''menett-'''<br /> |'''mendla-'''<br /> |'''umenduʃ-'''<br /> |'''immendi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustaj-''', '''ustaji-'''<br /> |'''anstajn-''', '''anstajin-'''<br /> |'''ustatt-''', '''ustitt-'''<br /> |'''ustalla-''', '''ustilla-'''<br /> |'''ustajuʃ-'''<br /> |'''istaji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''maj-'''<br /> |'''amann-'''<br /> |'''menett-'''<br /> |'''mjalla-'''<br /> |'''umujuʃ-'''<br /> |'''immaji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trak-'''<br /> |'''atrakan-'''<br /> |'''tetrakett-'''<br /> |'''ketralla-'''<br /> |'''utrakʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittraggi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''pakt''' &quot;understand&quot;<br /> |'''pakt-'''<br /> |'''ampakn-'''<br /> |'''pakett-'''<br /> |'''paktalla-'''<br /> |'''upaktuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ippakti-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''durʃin''' &quot;seem, appear&quot;<br /> |'''durʃin-'''<br /> |'''adurʃan-'''<br /> |'''durʃint-'''<br /> |'''durʃilla-'''<br /> |'''udurʃinʃ-'''<br /> |'''iddurʃini-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka''' &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |'''ʃaka-'''<br /> |'''aʃkan-'''<br /> |'''ʃakkatt-'''<br /> |'''ʃakalla-'''<br /> |'''uʃakkuʃ-'''<br /> |'''iʃakki-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kʃa''' [passive voice auxiliary]<br /> |'''kʃa-'''<br /> |'''akʃan-'''<br /> |'''kʃatt-'''<br /> |'''kʃalla-'''<br /> |'''ukʃuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkʃi-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The personal endings are : <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Present<br /> !Past<br /> !Future<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-sa'''<br /> |'''-os'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''-im'''<br /> |'''-mis'''<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''-ej'''<br /> |'''-jes'''<br /> |'''-oj'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''-ɔn'''<br /> |'''-sɔn'''<br /> |'''-on'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''-ib'''<br /> |'''-ips'''<br /> |'''-ob'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''-ɛw'''<br /> |'''-sɛw'''<br /> |'''-ow'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The following combinations of stem + ending set occur: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |Present<br /> |Past<br /> |Future<br /> |-<br /> |Generic<br /> !Simple <br /> Present<br /> !Habitual<br /> Past (&quot;used to&quot;)<br /> !Indefinite<br /> Future<br /> |-<br /> |Cursive<br /> !Present<br /> Continuous<br /> !Past <br /> Continuous<br /> !Future<br /> Progressive<br /> |-<br /> |Aorist<br /> |<br /> !Simple <br /> Past (Aorist)<br /> !Definite Future<br /> (Specific, Punctual)<br /> |-<br /> |Perfect<br /> !Present <br /> Perfect<br /> !Past<br /> Perfect<br /> !Future <br /> Perfect<br /> |-<br /> |Unrealised<br /> !Near <br /> Future<br /> !Unrealised <br /> Past (&quot;would&quot;)<br /> !Future <br /> (Remote) <br /> |-<br /> |Conditional <br /> !Conditional <br /> Present<br /> !Conditional <br /> Past<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> For the imperative, the base form of the verb is used. Optionally, the particle '''a''' can be used before the verb. Ex.: <br /> * '''Kaʃmal!''' / '''A kaʃmal!''' &quot;Take!&quot;<br /> * '''Hussi!''' / '''A hussi!''' &quot;Listen!&quot;<br /> * '''Spa kajnaar!''' / '''A spa kajnaar!''' &quot;Don't jump!&quot;<br /> <br /> While the formation of aspect stems is often irregular, the combination of stem + endings is usually quite regular and predictable. The usual epenthetic phonemes occur, mostly the semivowels ('''j''' and '''w'''), when two vowels come together, but these are more an artifact of speech and aren't usually indicated in writing. Ex.: <br /> * '''kaʃmallaus''', '''kaʃmallawus''' <br /> * '''kaʃmallaim''', '''kaʃmallajim''' <br /> * '''kaʃmallaej''', '''kaʃmallajej''', '''kaʃmallahej'''<br /> * '''kaʃmallaɔn''', '''kaʃmallawɔn''' <br /> * '''iggadriips''', '''iggadrijips'''<br /> * '''iggadrius''', '''iggadrijus'''<br /> * &amp;c.<br /> <br /> ==== Negative ====<br /> <br /> The infix '''-(i)nd-''', placed before the personal endings, makes a verb negative. Ex.: <br /> * '''landus''' &quot;I am not&quot;<br /> * '''lattindsɛw''' &quot;they weren't&quot;<br /> * '''hussindoj''' &quot;he/she won't listen&quot;<br /> * '''ateʃfanindips''' &quot;you weren't running away&quot;<br /> <br /> The emphatic negative particle '''spa''' may be used before the verb, always in the negative form. Ex.: <br /> * '''spa landus''' &quot;I am most certainly not&quot;<br /> * '''spa lattindsɛw''' &quot;they definitely weren't&quot;<br /> * '''spa hussindoj''' &quot;he/she will not listen at all&quot;<br /> * '''spa ateʃfanindips''' &quot;you really weren't running away&quot;<br /> <br /> This particle '''spa''' is also used in a negative command, with the base form of the verb. In that case, it doesn't necessarily have an emphatic meaning. Ex.: <br /> * '''Spa hussi!''' / '''A spa hussi!''' &quot;Don't listen!&quot;<br /> <br /> === Nominal Forms ===<br /> <br /> ==== Infinitive ==== <br /> <br /> The Dahur verb has infinitives for the Generic, Cursive, Aorist, Perfect and Unrealised aspects. They are formed by adding the ending '''-eh''' to the corresponding stem. The prefix '''u-''' of the Unrealised aspect is optional in the infinitive. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Generic<br /> !Cursive<br /> !Aorist<br /> !Perfect<br /> !Unrealised<br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmaleh'''<br /> |'''akʃmalaneh'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaletteh'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaeh'''<br /> |'''ukaʃmaluʃeh''', '''kaʃmaluʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''laeh'''<br /> |'''alaneh'''<br /> |'''latteh'''<br /> |'''lallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)lauʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadraeh'''<br /> |'''agandraneh'''<br /> |'''gadretteh'''<br /> |'''gadrallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)gadruʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kotaeh'''<br /> |'''ankoneh'''<br /> |'''kotatteh'''<br /> |'''kekollaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)kotuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussieh'''<br /> |'''ahsejneh'''<br /> |'''husteh'''<br /> |'''huzillaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)hussuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''keneh'''<br /> |'''angeneh'''<br /> |'''kahetteh'''<br /> |'''kenallaeh''', '''krallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)kunuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustajeh'''<br /> |'''anstajneh'''<br /> |'''ustatteh''', '''ustitteh'''<br /> |'''ustallaeh''', '''ustillaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)stajuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''majeh'''<br /> |'''amanneh'''<br /> |'''menetteh'''<br /> |'''mjallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)mujuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trakeh'''<br /> |'''atrakaneh'''<br /> |'''tetraketteh'''<br /> |'''ketrallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)trakʃeh'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The infinitive may be used as a noun, but also with certain auxiliary verbs. When a participle is used as a noun, usually the definite article may be omitted. Ex.: <br /> <br /> *'''(Tru) kotaeh laej suwani.''' / '''(Tru) kotaeh suwanjaej.''' &quot;Eating is good.&quot;<br /> <br /> ==== Participle ====<br /> Participles are built by adding specific suffixes to the corresponding stems of the verb: <br /> * '''-ur''' (active participle)<br /> * '''-ek''' (passive participle)<br /> <br /> The prefix '''u-''' of the unrealised stem is dropped.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Generic<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Cursive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Aorist<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmalur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalek'''<br /> |'''akʃmalanur'''<br /> |'''akʃmalanek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalettur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalettek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaur''', '''kaʃmallur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaek''', '''kaʃmallek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaluʃur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaluʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''laur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''alanur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lattur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lallaur''', '''lallur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lauʃur'''<br /> | <br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadraur'''<br /> |'''gadraek'''<br /> |'''agandranur'''<br /> |'''agandranek'''<br /> |'''gadrettur'''<br /> |'''gadrettek'''<br /> |'''gadrallur'''<br /> |'''gadrallek'''<br /> |'''gadruʃur'''<br /> |'''gadruʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kotaur'''<br /> |'''kotaek'''<br /> |'''ankonur'''<br /> |'''ankonek'''<br /> |'''kotattur'''<br /> |'''kotattek'''<br /> |'''kekollur'''<br /> |'''kekollek'''<br /> |'''kotuʃur'''<br /> |'''kotuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussiur'''<br /> |'''hussiek'''<br /> |'''ahsejnur'''<br /> |'''ahsejnek'''<br /> |'''hustur'''<br /> |'''hustek'''<br /> |'''huzillaur'''<br /> |'''huzillaek'''<br /> |'''hussuʃur'''<br /> |'''hussuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''kenur'''<br /> |'''kenek'''<br /> |'''angenur'''<br /> |'''angenek'''<br /> |'''kahettur'''<br /> |'''kahettek'''<br /> |'''kenallur''', '''krallur'''<br /> |'''kenallek''', '''krallek'''<br /> |'''kunuʃur'''<br /> |'''kunuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustajur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''anstajnur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustattur''', '''ustittur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustallur''', '''ustillek'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustajuʃur'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''majur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''amannur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''menettur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''mjallur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''mujuʃur'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trakur'''<br /> |'''trakek'''<br /> |'''atrakanur'''<br /> |'''atrakanek'''<br /> |'''tetrakettur'''<br /> |'''tetrakettek'''<br /> |'''ketrallur'''<br /> |'''ketrallek'''<br /> |'''trakʃur'''<br /> |'''trakʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka''' &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |'''ʃakaur'''<br /> |'''ʃakaek'''<br /> |'''aʃkanur'''<br /> |'''aʃkanek'''<br /> |'''ʃakkattur'''<br /> |'''ʃakkattek'''<br /> |'''ʃakallur'''<br /> |'''ʃakallek'''<br /> |'''ʃakkuʃur'''<br /> |'''ʃakkuʃek'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The corresponding negative versions of these participles are formed regularly with the suffix '''-(i)nd-'''. Ex.:<br /> * '''landur''' &quot;not being&quot;<br /> * '''angenindur''' &quot;not seeing&quot;<br /> * '''gradrettindek''' &quot;not written&quot;<br /> * '''ketrallindur''' &quot;who/which had not done&quot;<br /> * '''aʃkanindek''' &quot;which isn't being hunted&quot;<br /> <br /> === Passive Voice ===<br /> <br /> The passive voice is built with the auxiliary '''kʃa''', conjugated regularly, followed by the base form of the verb. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''akʃanus taldesyys''' &quot;I'm being taken care of&quot;<br /> * '''akʃanindmis ken''' &quot;you were not being seen&quot;<br /> * '''kʃallaɔn kaʃmal''' &quot;we have been taken&quot;<br /> * '''kʃattsɛw kota''' &quot;they were eaten&quot;<br /> * '''ikkʃindej trak''' &quot;if it's not done&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> === Conjugation ===<br /> Next you have a few verbs, conjugated in all its forms.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|Verb '''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Present<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Continuous <br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Perfect <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Near Future <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Present <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''laus'''<br /> |'''landus'''<br /> |'''alanus'''<br /> |'''alanindus'''<br /> |'''lallaus'''<br /> |'''lallandus'''<br /> |'''ulauʃus'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindus'''<br /> |'''illaius'''<br /> |'''illaindus'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''laim'''<br /> |'''landim'''<br /> |'''alanim'''<br /> |'''alanindim'''<br /> |'''lallaim'''<br /> |'''lallandim'''<br /> |'''ulauʃim'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindim'''<br /> |'''illaiim'''<br /> |'''illaindim'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''laej'''<br /> |'''landej'''<br /> |'''alanej'''<br /> |'''alanindej'''<br /> |'''lallaej'''<br /> |'''lallandej'''<br /> |'''ulauʃej'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindej'''<br /> |'''illaiej'''<br /> |'''illaindej'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''laɔn'''<br /> |'''landɔn'''<br /> |'''alanɔn'''<br /> |'''alanindɔn'''<br /> |'''lallaɔn'''<br /> |'''lallandɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindɔn'''<br /> |'''illaiɔn'''<br /> |'''illaindɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laib'''<br /> |'''landib'''<br /> |'''alanib'''<br /> |'''alanindib'''<br /> |'''lallaib'''<br /> |'''lallandib'''<br /> |'''ulauʃib'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindib'''<br /> |'''illaiib'''<br /> |'''illaindib'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''laɛw'''<br /> |'''landɛw'''<br /> |'''alanɛw'''<br /> |'''alanindɛw'''<br /> |'''lallaɛw'''<br /> |'''lallandɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindɛw'''<br /> |'''illaiɛw'''<br /> |'''illaindɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Habitual Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Continuous <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Past <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Past <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''lasa'''<br /> |'''landsa'''<br /> |'''alansa'''<br /> |'''alanindsa'''<br /> |'''lattsa'''<br /> |'''lattindsa'''<br /> |'''lallasa'''<br /> |'''lallandsa'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsa'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsa'''<br /> |'''illaisa'''<br /> |'''illaindsa'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''lamis'''<br /> |'''landmis'''<br /> |'''alanmis'''<br /> |'''alanindmis'''<br /> |'''lattmis'''<br /> |'''lattindmis'''<br /> |'''lallamis'''<br /> |'''lallandmis'''<br /> |'''ulauʃmis'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindmis'''<br /> |'''illaimis'''<br /> |'''illaindmis'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''lajes'''<br /> |'''landjes'''<br /> |'''alanjes'''<br /> |'''alanindjes'''<br /> |'''lattjes'''<br /> |'''lattindjes'''<br /> |'''lallajes'''<br /> |'''lallandjes'''<br /> |'''ulauʃjes'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindjes'''<br /> |'''illaijes'''<br /> |'''illaindjes'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''lasɔn'''<br /> |'''landsɔn'''<br /> |'''alansɔn'''<br /> |'''alanindsɔn'''<br /> |'''lattsɔn'''<br /> |'''lattindsɔn'''<br /> |'''lallasɔn'''<br /> |'''lallandsɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsɔn'''<br /> |'''illaisɔn'''<br /> |'''illaiindsɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laips'''<br /> |'''landips'''<br /> |'''alanips'''<br /> |'''alanindips'''<br /> |'''lattips'''<br /> |'''lattindips'''<br /> |'''lallaips'''<br /> |'''lallandips'''<br /> |'''ulauʃips'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindips'''<br /> |'''illaiips'''<br /> |'''illaindips'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''lasɛw'''<br /> |'''landsɛw'''<br /> |'''alansɛw'''<br /> |'''alanindsɛw'''<br /> |'''lattsɛw'''<br /> |'''lattindsɛw'''<br /> |'''lallasɛw'''<br /> |'''lallandsɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsɛw'''<br /> |'''illaisɛw'''<br /> |'''illaindsɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Indefinite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Progressive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Definite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Remote Future<br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''laos'''<br /> |'''landos'''<br /> |'''alanos'''<br /> |'''alanindos'''<br /> |'''lattos'''<br /> |'''lattindos'''<br /> |'''lallaos'''<br /> |'''lallandos'''<br /> |'''ulauʃos'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindos'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''laom'''<br /> |'''landom'''<br /> |'''alanom'''<br /> |'''alanindom'''<br /> |'''lattom'''<br /> |'''lattindom'''<br /> |'''lallaom'''<br /> |'''lallandom'''<br /> |'''ulauʃom'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindom'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''laoj'''<br /> |'''landoj'''<br /> |'''alanoj'''<br /> |'''alanindoj'''<br /> |'''lattoj'''<br /> |'''lattindoj'''<br /> |'''lallaoj'''<br /> |'''lallandoj'''<br /> |'''ulauʃoj'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindoj'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''laon'''<br /> |'''landon'''<br /> |'''alanon'''<br /> |'''alanindon'''<br /> |'''latton'''<br /> |'''lattindon'''<br /> |'''lallaon'''<br /> |'''lallandon'''<br /> |'''ulauʃon'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindon'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laob'''<br /> |'''landob'''<br /> |'''alanob'''<br /> |'''alanindob'''<br /> |'''lattob'''<br /> |'''lattindob'''<br /> |'''lallaob'''<br /> |'''lallandob'''<br /> |'''ulauʃob'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindob'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''laow'''<br /> |'''landow'''<br /> |'''alanow'''<br /> |'''alanindow'''<br /> |'''lattow'''<br /> |'''lattindow'''<br /> |'''lallaow'''<br /> |'''lallandow'''<br /> |'''ulauʃow'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindow'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|Verb '''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Present<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Continuous <br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Perfect <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Near Future <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Present <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussius'''<br /> |'''hussindus'''<br /> |'''ahsejnus'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindus'''<br /> |'''huzillaus'''<br /> |'''huzillandus'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃus'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindus'''<br /> |'''ihussejius'''<br /> |'''ihussejindus'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussiim'''<br /> |'''hussindim'''<br /> |'''ahsejnim'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindim'''<br /> |'''huzillaim'''<br /> |'''huzillandim'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃim'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindim'''<br /> |'''ihussejiim'''<br /> |'''ihussejindim'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussije'''<br /> |'''hussindje'''<br /> |'''ahsejnje'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindje'''<br /> |'''huzillaje'''<br /> |'''huzillandje'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃje'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindje'''<br /> |'''ihussejije'''<br /> |'''ihussejindje'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussiɔn'''<br /> |'''hussindɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillaɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillandɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejiɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejindɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiib'''<br /> |'''hussindib'''<br /> |'''ahsejnib'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindib'''<br /> |'''huzillaib'''<br /> |'''huzillandib'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃib'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindib'''<br /> |'''ihussejiib'''<br /> |'''ihussejindib'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussiɛw'''<br /> |'''hussindɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillaɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillandɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejiɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejindɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Habitual Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Continuous <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Past <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Past <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussisa'''<br /> |'''hussindsa'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsa'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsa'''<br /> |'''hustsa'''<br /> |'''hustindsa'''<br /> |'''huzillasa'''<br /> |'''huzillandsa'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsa'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsa'''<br /> |'''ihussejisa'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsa'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussimis'''<br /> |'''hussindmis'''<br /> |'''ahsejnmis'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindmis'''<br /> |'''hustmis'''<br /> |'''hustindmis'''<br /> |'''huzillamis'''<br /> |'''huzillandmis'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃmis'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindmis'''<br /> |'''ihussejimis'''<br /> |'''ihussejindmis'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussijes'''<br /> |'''hussindjes'''<br /> |'''ahsejnjes'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindjes'''<br /> |'''hustjes'''<br /> |'''hustindjes'''<br /> |'''huzillajes'''<br /> |'''huzillandjes'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃjes'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindjes'''<br /> |'''ihussejijes'''<br /> |'''ihussejindjes'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussisɔn'''<br /> |'''hussindsɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsɔn'''<br /> |'''hustsɔn'''<br /> |'''hustindsɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillasɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillandsɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejisɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiips'''<br /> |'''hussindips'''<br /> |'''ahsejnips'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindips'''<br /> |'''hustips'''<br /> |'''hustindips'''<br /> |'''huzillaips'''<br /> |'''huzillandips'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃips'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindips'''<br /> |'''ihussejiips'''<br /> |'''ihussejindips'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussisɛw'''<br /> |'''hussindsɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsɛw'''<br /> |'''hustsɛw'''<br /> |'''hustindsɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillasɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillandsɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejisɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Indefinite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Progressive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Definite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Remote Future<br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussios'''<br /> |'''hussindos'''<br /> |'''ahsejnos'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindos'''<br /> |'''hustos'''<br /> |'''hustindos'''<br /> |'''huzillaos'''<br /> |'''huzillandos'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃos'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindos'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussiom'''<br /> |'''hussindom'''<br /> |'''ahsejnom'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindom'''<br /> |'''hustom'''<br /> |'''hustindom'''<br /> |'''huzillaom'''<br /> |'''huzillandom'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃom'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindom'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussioj'''<br /> |'''hussindoj'''<br /> |'''ahsejnoj'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindoj'''<br /> |'''hustoj'''<br /> |'''hustindoj'''<br /> |'''huzillaoj'''<br /> |'''huzillandoj'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃoj'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindoj'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussion'''<br /> |'''hussindon'''<br /> |'''ahsejnon'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindon'''<br /> |'''huston'''<br /> |'''hustindon'''<br /> |'''huzillaon'''<br /> |'''huzillandon'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃon'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindon'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiob'''<br /> |'''hussindob'''<br /> |'''ahsejnob'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindob'''<br /> |'''hustob'''<br /> |'''hustindob'''<br /> |'''huzillaob'''<br /> |'''huzillandob'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃob'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindob'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussiow'''<br /> |'''hussindow'''<br /> |'''ahsejnow'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindow'''<br /> |'''hustow'''<br /> |'''hustindow'''<br /> |'''huzillaow'''<br /> |'''huzillandow'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃow'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindow'''<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Incorporation ===<br /> Besides complementing a verb with a noun phrase in the accusative (or some other) case, complements may be incorporated in the verb. This resource is particularly common with more frequent verb + complement combinations. Common verbs, especially indicating more fundamental actions such as &quot;eat&quot;, &quot;drink&quot;, &quot;take&quot;, &quot;speak&quot;, &quot;make&quot;, &quot;kill&quot; &amp;c. are more prone to this type of constructions, while more abstract verbs, as well as less frequently used verbs, tend to follow the more conventional verb + complement approach. <br /> <br /> When a complement is incorporated to a verb, it receives the prefix '''s-''' and is placed before the verb root. Irregularities are not uncommon. <br /> Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Regular Construction<br /> !Incorporation<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota ʃøga'''<br /> |'''sʃøgkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat meat&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota dabasa'''<br /> |'''sdabaskota'''<br /> |&quot;eat bread&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota drupala'''<br /> |'''sdrupalkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat vegetables&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota pinim'''<br /> |'''spinimkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat fruit&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''twiʃin halajna'''<br /> |'''shalantwiʃin'''<br /> |&quot;drink water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''twiʃin myndra'''<br /> |'''smyndtwiʃin'''<br /> |&quot;drink alcoholic beverage&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys menira'''<br /> |'''smeniraldesyys'''<br /> |&quot;take care of a child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys apsala'''<br /> |'''sapsaldesyys'''<br /> |&quot;take care of everything&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi tuglaa'''<br /> |'''stuglussi'''<br /> |&quot;hear a noise&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka pœrakʃa'''<br /> |'''spœrakʃaka'''<br /> |&quot;hunt a beast&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak tilmara'''<br /> |'''stilmatrak'''<br /> |&quot;make a mistake&quot;<br /> |}</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Conlangs/Dahur&diff=5382 Conlangs/Dahur 2026-09-13T01:53:54Z <p>Panglossa: /* Predicative Adjectives */</p> <hr /> <div>{{DISPLAYTITLE:Dahur}}<br /> {{RightTOC}}<br /> =Phonology=<br /> <br /> ==Vowels==<br /> <br /> Dahur vowels are usually short. Double vowels (ex.: aa, ee &amp;c.) may happen, but they are considered as simple vowel sequences.<br /> <br /> The following vowels qualities are distinguished: <br /> <br /> '''a''' '''e''' '''ɛ''' '''i''' '''o''' '''ɔ''' '''ø''' '''œ''' '''u''' '''y'''<br /> <br /> The diagram below shows the 10 vowels of Dahur.<br /> <br /> [[File:dahurvowels.png|link=]]<br /> <br /> In practice, the vowel /a/ may actually vary between /a/, /ä/ and /ɑ/.<br /> <br /> Merging of /ø/ and /œ/ is fairly common, especially in more informal contexts, as these two vowels mostly don't occur as minimal pair (except in a couple cases).<br /> <br /> ==Consonants==<br /> <br /> Dahur consonants are as follows: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;border-width:0px&quot;|<br /> !Bilabial<br /> !Labiodental<br /> !Alveolar<br /> !Postalveolar<br /> !Palatal<br /> !Velar<br /> !Glottal<br /> |-<br /> !Nasal<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''m'''<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''n'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Plosive<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''p''' '''b'''<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''t''' '''d'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''k''' '''g'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Sibilant fricative<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''s''' '''z'''<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''ʃ''' '''ʒ''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Non-sibilant fricative<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''f''' '''v''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''h'''<br /> |-<br /> !Approximant<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''j'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Tap/Flap/Trill<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''ɾ''' '''r''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Lateral Approx.<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''l'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The rhotic consonant ('''r''') is in free variation and may be realised either as a tap, a flap or a trill. The trill pronunciation (/r/) is more common at the beginning of a syllable, and even more so at the beginning of a word. The tap/flap pronunciation (/ɾ/) is more common in consonant clusters, especially after a plosive. <br /> <br /> In Dahur phonology, the combinations '''tr''' and '''kʃ''' count as single, independent consonants.<br /> <br /> ==Phonotactics==<br /> A syllable in Dahur must contain one vowel, which may be preceded and/or followed by any number of consonants. In practice, consonant clusters don't usually go beyond four consonants. For that account, '''kʃ''' and '''tɾ''' are always considered as single consonants. <br /> <br /> All consonant sequences are possible. However, in practice, some consonant combinations (ex. '''-hm-''', '''-tɾkʃ-''' &amp;c.) are rare.<br /> <br /> Some studies consider the existence of a glottal stop when a proper consonant is absent. This view is reflected in the writing, which has a special sign for the glottal stop / lack of a consonant. The last consonant of a syllable can be doubled. <br /> <br /> Examples of valid syllables: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''a'''<br /> | '''tɛ'''<br /> | '''en'''<br /> | '''wi'''<br /> | '''koj'''<br /> | '''gjɔ'''<br /> | '''pɾujn'''<br /> | '''kʃtɾa'''<br /> | '''fʃtlœmbz'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Stress==<br /> In the standard pronunciation, words are stressed on the next-to-last syllable. However, if the last syllable contains the consonant /tɾ/, it will be stressed.<br /> <br /> Ex.:<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''&lt;u&gt;ka&lt;/u&gt;nar''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/ˈka.nar/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''os&lt;u&gt;trøn&lt;/u&gt;dɛl''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/os.ˈtɾøn.dɛl/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''&lt;u&gt;tef&lt;/u&gt;ʃiv''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/ˈtef.ʃiv/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''da&lt;u&gt;sutɾ&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/daˈsutɾ/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''maʃkin&lt;u&gt;tɾod&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/maʃ.kinˈtɾod/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Doubled vowels in the last syllable may sound as a long, stressed vowel; however, they are actually two separate vowels, each one in a different syllable, with stress falling on the first one (or on the last, in case that syllable contains the consonant '''tr'''). It is not uncommon to hear an epenthetic '''h''', '''j''' or '''w''' between the two vowels.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kaj&lt;u&gt;na&lt;/u&gt;ar''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/kaj.ˈna.ar/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/kaj.ˈna.har/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> | '''pakisa&lt;u&gt;atr&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/pa.ki.sa.ˈatr/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/pa.ki.sa.ˈhatr/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> | '''tøndel&lt;u&gt;li&lt;/u&gt;in''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.in/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.jin/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.hin/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''talde&lt;u&gt;sy&lt;/u&gt;ys''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tal.de.ˈsy.ys/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tal.de.ˈsy.hys/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =Writing=<br /> <br /> [[Dahur script]] consists in an alphasyllabary consisting in separate letters indicating consonants, a combination of separate letters and diacritics to indicate vowels, as well as certain special letters for individual syllables.<br /> <br /> =Morphology=<br /> <br /> Dahur is a highly flexional language, with a strong presence of irregular forms.<br /> <br /> Nouns inflect for number, which is basically singular and plural, but there are also occurrences of dual (for things normally occurring in pairs) and singulative (for individual items of things usually found collectively). <br /> <br /> Nouns also inflect for case, usually: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, locative, instrumental, ergative and ablative. Instances of partitive and vocative are also found. The case called ergative is used basically for the agent of the passive voice.<br /> <br /> Adjectives show no agreement to nouns, and inflect for degree (comparatives of superiority, equality, inferiority; relative and absolute superlative).<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Nouns==<br /> <br /> <br /> === Class ===<br /> <br /> Dahurian nouns are divided in five classes, which can be compared to Latin or Greek declensions, as they consist in different inflection patterns, but may also be seen as a form of gender, as class is usually (but not always necessarily) related to the meaning of a noun. <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class 1<br /> |Living beings<br /> |-<br /> !Class 2<br /> |General objects<br /> |-<br /> !Class 3<br /> |Natural elements; insects<br /> |-<br /> !Class 4<br /> |Parts of human body; clothing<br /> |-<br /> !Class 5<br /> |Abstract nouns; traditional imaginary beings<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There are no morphological indications related to noun classes in the nominative singular. The differences appear along the inflection of nouns.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Number ===<br /> Nouns in Dahur have a singular and a plural. The plural ending varies according to noun class and to case. There is also a dual number, which is valid only for nouns normally occurring in pairs. Mass or collective nouns have a singulative inflection, but this is not very systematically indicated.<br /> <br /> <br /> So, for example:<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> !Dual<br /> !Singulative<br /> |-<br /> |class 1<br /> |'''grats'''<br /> &quot;boy&quot;<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> &quot;boys&quot;<br /> | -<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 2<br /> |'''kɛʃev'''<br /> &quot;hammer&quot;<br /> |'''kɛʃevlin'''<br /> &quot;hammers&quot;<br /> |'''kɛʃevs'''<br /> &quot;pair of hammers&quot; (traditionally used by blacksmiths)<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 3<br /> |'''halajn'''<br /> &quot;water&quot;<br /> |'''halejnn'''<br /> &quot;waters&quot; (i.e. in a flood)<br /> |'''halajns'''<br /> &quot;The Two Waters&quot; (the river Okanuma and the lake Kassanjas)<br /> |'''halajny'''<br /> &quot;a drop of water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |class 4<br /> |'''kanar'''<br /> &quot;eye&quot;<br /> |'''kanarni'''<br /> &quot;many eyes&quot; (mostly figuratively)<br /> |'''kanaris'''<br /> &quot;(two/both) eyes&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 4<br /> |'''kʃalim'''<br /> &quot;hair&quot;<br /> |'''kʃalimni'''<br /> &quot;(types of) hair&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |'''kʃalimy'''<br /> &quot;a (single) hair&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |class 5<br /> |'''astrønɛl'''<br /> &quot;idea&quot;<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> &quot;ideas&quot;<br /> |'''astrønɛls'''<br /> &quot;a couple ideas&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The plural in classes 1, 2 and 5 is usually regular, obtained with the respective suffixes ('''-en''', '''-lin''', '''-jan'''). <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 1<br /> |'''katlaj'''<br /> &quot;girlfriend&quot;<br /> |'''katlajen'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''dukʃatr'''<br /> &quot;boss&quot;<br /> |'''dukʃatren'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''egastɛv'''<br /> &quot;farmer&quot;<br /> |'''egastɛven'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 2<br /> |'''takoj'''<br /> &quot;pin&quot;<br /> |'''takojlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''uhpsan'''<br /> &quot;paper&quot;<br /> |'''uhpsanlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''dasutr'''<br /> &quot;document, file&quot;<br /> |'''dasutrlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 5<br /> |'''pɛktegal'''<br /> &quot;angel&quot;<br /> |'''pɛktegaljan'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ostrøndɛl'''<br /> &quot;interruption&quot;<br /> |'''ostrøndɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''piktaraʃ'''<br /> &quot;problem&quot;<br /> |'''piktaraʃjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In classes 3 and 4, besides the suffixes ('''-n''', '''-ni'''), most nouns suffer some sort of mutation, usually affecting only one vowel but non uncommonly consisting of more significative changes.<br /> <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 3<br /> |'''pakpaki'''<br /> &quot;louse&quot;<br /> |'''pakpɛkin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''pahalis'''<br /> &quot;leaf&quot;<br /> |'''pahaljen'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''tʃeptal'''<br /> &quot;cloud&quot;<br /> |'''tʃapatlin''', '''tʃaptlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 4<br /> |'''kraus'''<br /> &quot;ear&quot;<br /> |'''krojsni'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ɛmblew'''<br /> &quot;hat&quot;<br /> |'''ɛmbalni'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''krikter'''<br /> &quot;helmet&quot;<br /> |'''kruktni'''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Case ===<br /> Dahur nouns inflect for the following cases: <br /> * '''nominative''' (subject, predicative)<br /> * '''accusative''' (direct object, motion towards)<br /> * '''dative''' (indirect object)<br /> * '''genitive''' (possession, partitive, origin)<br /> * '''locative''' (location, placement)<br /> * '''instrumental''' (instrument, means, company)<br /> * '''ablative''' (adverbial)<br /> * '''ergative''' (agent of the passive voice)<br /> <br /> All cases except the nominative and the ergative can be used with prepositions.<br /> <br /> Certain nouns, mostly nouns indicating human beings, also show a vocative form, mostly formed with the ending '''-e''', but usually irregular. <br /> <br /> Certain nouns, for example nouns indicating mass or food, show a partitive case, usually formed with the ending '''-(i)t'''. <br /> <br /> <br /> === Inflection ===<br /> <br /> Noun declension in Dahur is quite regular, in terms of case and the less usual numbers, viz. the dual and the singulative.<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 1<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 2<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 3<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 4<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 5<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''-'''<br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-en'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-lin'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-n'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-is'''<br /> |'''-ni'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-an'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-lajn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-an'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-jas'''<br /> |'''-nja'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-un'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-lun'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-wan'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-ujs'''<br /> |'''-nu'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-ujn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''-ak'''<br /> |'''-ask'''<br /> |'''-ken'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ik'''<br /> |'''-isk'''<br /> |'''-link'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-aʃ'''<br /> |'''-ʃas'''<br /> |'''-ʃan'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-iʃ'''<br /> |'''-siʃ'''<br /> |'''-niʃ'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ik'''<br /> |'''-isk'''<br /> |'''-jank'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-emb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-limb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-emb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-bis'''<br /> |'''-nibb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-jamb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-nom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-lom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-nom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-joms'''<br /> |'''-njom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-njom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-nɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-lɛnv''', '''-lɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-nɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-jɛfs'''<br /> |'''-njɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-njɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-løtr'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-sjøtr'''<br /> |'''-trøjn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøjn'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> &lt;!---<br /> * The '''nominative''' case is the basic form of nouns.<br /> * The '''accusative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-a'''. <br /> * The '''dative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-si'''.<br /> * The '''genitive''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ak''' for animate intelligent beings, '''-iʃ''' for animals, '''-is''' for concrete objects and '''-ɔn''' for abstract things.<br /> * The '''locative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-us'''. With animate nouns, the locative can mean &quot;on&quot;, or &quot;with&quot;, as in &quot;carrying with&quot;. <br /> * The '''instrumental''' case is indicated by the enging '''-em''' for animate intelligent beings, '''-om''' for animals, '''-um''' for things.<br /> * The '''ergative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-øtr'''. <br /> * The '''ablative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ɛv'''. <br /> --&gt;<br /> <br /> When an ending starting with a vowel is applied, a final '''-i''' becomes '''-j-''', and a final '''-u''' becomes '''-w-'''; otherwise, an '''-h-''' is added. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''dula''' &quot;babysitter&quot;, '''dulahen''' &quot;babysitters&quot;<br /> * '''agdari''' &quot;prisoner&quot;, '''agdarjen''' &quot;prisoners&quot;<br /> * '''pakpaki''' &quot;louse&quot;, '''pakpakja''' &quot;louse (accus.)&quot;, '''pakpakjaʃ''' &quot;of a louse&quot;, '''pakpakjom''' &quot;by a louse&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> In the following tables, you have some examples of nouns of the various classes, fully inflected for number and case.<br /> <br /> * Class 1: '''grats''' &quot;boy&quot; <br /> * Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' &quot;hammer&quot; <br /> * Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' &quot;cloud&quot; <br /> * Class 4: '''kraus''' &quot;ear&quot; <br /> * Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' &quot;idea&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 1: '''grats''' &quot;boy&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''grats'''<br /> |'''gratss'''<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''gratsa'''<br /> |'''gratsas'''<br /> |'''gratsan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''gratsu'''<br /> |'''gratsus'''<br /> |'''gratsun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''gratsak'''<br /> |'''gratsask'''<br /> |'''gratsken'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''gratsebb'''<br /> |'''gratseps'''<br /> |'''gratsemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''gratsom'''<br /> |'''gratsoms'''<br /> |'''gratsnom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''gratsɛv'''<br /> |'''gratsɛfs'''<br /> |'''gratsnɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''gratsøtr'''<br /> |'''gratssøtr'''<br /> |'''gratsetrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Vocative<br /> |'''gratse'''<br /> |'''gratses'''<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' &quot;hammer&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''kɛʃev'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevs'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlin'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''kɛʃeva'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevas'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlajn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''kɛʃevu'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevus'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''kɛʃevik'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevisk'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlink'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''kɛʃevebb'''<br /> |'''kɛʃeveps'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlimb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''kɛʃevom'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevoms'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''kɛʃevɛv'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevɛfs'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlɛnv''', '''kɛʃevlɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''kɛʃevøtr'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevsøtr'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevløtr'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' &quot;cloud&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''tʃeptal'''<br /> |'''tʃeptals'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlin'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''tʃeptala'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalas'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlijan''', '''tʃaptljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''tʃeptalu'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalus'''<br /> |'''tʃaptliwan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''tʃeptalaʃ'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalʃas'''<br /> |'''tʃaptliʃan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''tʃeptalebb'''<br /> |'''tʃeptaleps'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlijemb''', '''tʃaptljemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''tʃeptalom'''<br /> |'''tʃeptaloms'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlinom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''tʃeptalɛv'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalɛfs'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlinɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''tʃeptaløtr'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalsøtr'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlitrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''tʃeptalt'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalts'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlint'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 4: '''kraus''' &quot;ear&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''kraus'''<br /> |'''krausis'''<br /> |'''krojsni'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''krausa'''<br /> |'''krausjas'''<br /> |'''krojsnja'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''krausu'''<br /> |'''krausujs'''<br /> |'''krojsnu'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''krausiʃ'''<br /> |'''kraussiʃ'''<br /> |'''krojsniʃ'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''krausebb'''<br /> |'''krauseps'''<br /> |'''krojsnibb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''krausom'''<br /> |'''krausoms'''<br /> |'''krojsnjom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''krausɛv'''<br /> |'''krausɛfs'''<br /> |'''krojsnjɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''krausøtr'''<br /> |'''krausjøtr'''<br /> |'''krojstrøjn'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' &quot;idea&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''astrønɛls'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''astrønɛla'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlas'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''astrønɛlu'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlus'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlujn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''astrønɛlik'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlisk'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljank'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''astrønɛlebb'''<br /> |'''astrønɛleps'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljamb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''astrønɛlom'''<br /> |'''astrønɛloms'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlnjom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''astrønɛlɛv'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlɛfs'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlnjɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''astrønɛløtr'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlsøtr'''<br /> |'''astrønɛltrøjn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''astrønɛlt'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlts'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljant'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Articles ==<br /> <br /> === Definite Article === <br /> <br /> The definite article inflects for case and number, and is quite irregular. <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> !Singulative <br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''tru'''<br /> |'''gas'''<br /> |'''tann'''<br /> |'''try'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''na'''<br /> |'''ga'''<br /> |'''ta'''<br /> |'''ny'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''kʃu'''<br /> |'''gu'''<br /> |'''tun'''<br /> |'''kʃu'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''kis'''<br /> |'''gak'''<br /> |'''tak'''<br /> |'''kis'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''debb'''<br /> |'''gebb'''<br /> |'''tebb'''<br /> |'''debb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''trom'''<br /> |'''gom'''<br /> |'''tom'''<br /> |'''trom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative <br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |'''gɛv'''<br /> |'''tɛv'''<br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''trø'''<br /> |'''gøtr'''<br /> |'''tøtr'''<br /> |'''trø'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Indefinite Article === <br /> <br /> Dahur has no proper indefinite article. <br /> <br /> If it's really necessary to mark a noun phrase as indefinite, an indefinite pronoun may be used. The most common is '''lum''' (invariable), meaning &quot;some&quot;, &quot;a certain&quot; &amp;c.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Prepositions ==<br /> <br /> Prepositions in Dahur require the noun in one of the following cases: <br /> <br /> * accusative<br /> * dative<br /> * genitive<br /> * ablative<br /> * instrumental<br /> * locative<br /> <br /> The nominative and the ergative are '''never''' used with prepositions. <br /> <br /> In the table below you have the most common Dahur prepositions: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Preposition<br /> !Case<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''dun'''<br /> |''locative'', ''accusative of movement''<br /> |inside<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''yin'''<br /> |''dative''<br /> |for, in behalf of<br /> |-<br /> |''accusative''<br /> |towards<br /> |-<br /> |'''ari''', '''ar'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |from, out of<br /> |-<br /> |'''yuʃ'''<br /> |''genitive'', ''ablative''<br /> |because of<br /> |-<br /> |'''vøj'''<br /> |''locative''<br /> |through<br /> |-<br /> |'''syn'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |near<br /> |-<br /> |'''kʃe'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |since, ago<br /> |-<br /> |'''pɛn'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |besides, next to<br /> |-<br /> |'''lujg'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |in front of<br /> |-<br /> |'''mœh'''<br /> |''ablative''<br /> |without<br /> |-<br /> |'''sto'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |on, on top of<br /> |-<br /> |'''krɔj'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |under<br /> |-<br /> |'''tjɛs'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |before (time)<br /> |-<br /> |'''gwaj'''<br /> |''accusative''<br /> |after (time)<br /> |-<br /> |'''fyj'''<br /> |''ablative''<br /> |during<br /> |-<br /> |'''vlen'''<br /> |''instrumental''<br /> |despite<br /> |-<br /> |'''uhk'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |except<br /> |-<br /> |'''uzd'''<br /> |''dative''<br /> |instead of<br /> |-<br /> |'''blas'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |behind<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> * '''yin na hedana''' &quot;towards the house&quot;<br /> * '''dun na hedana''' &quot;into the house&quot;<br /> * '''ar kis hedanik''' &quot;from the house&quot;, &quot;out of the house&quot;<br /> * '''syn debb hedanebb''' &quot;near the house&quot;<br /> * '''syn na hedana''' &quot;going near of the house&quot;<br /> * '''pɛn debb hedanebb''' &quot;besides the house&quot;, &quot;next to the house&quot;<br /> * '''pɛn na hedana''' &quot;going next to the house&quot;<br /> * '''lujg debb hedanebb''' &quot;in front to the house&quot;<br /> * '''lujg na hedana''' &quot;going to the front of the house&quot;<br /> * '''mœh dɛv hedanɛv''' &quot;without the house&quot;<br /> * '''sto debb hedanebb''' &quot;on top of the house&quot;<br /> * '''sto na hedana''' &quot;going onto (the top of) the house&quot;<br /> * '''krɔj debb hedanebb''' &quot;under the house&quot;<br /> * '''uzd kʃu hedanu''' &quot;instead of the house&quot;<br /> * '''blas debb hedanebb''' &quot;behind the house&quot;<br /> * '''blas na hedana''' &quot;going behind the house&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> == Adjectives ==<br /> <br /> === Attributive Adjectives ===<br /> Attributive adjectives in Dahur are invariable and come before the noun. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''fɛren grats''' &quot;a smart boy&quot;<br /> * '''duʃ halajn''' &quot;clean water&quot;<br /> * '''selak kanaris''' &quot;pretty eyes&quot;<br /> <br /> A few attributes may be expressed by affixes to the noun, instead of the separate adjective. The most common ones are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar'''<br /> |'''-os''' <br /> (usually deleting the last vowel of the original noun)<br /> |&quot;big&quot;, &quot;large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr'''<br /> |'''-in-''' <br /> (before the last vowel of the or. noun)<br /> |&quot;small&quot;, &quot;little&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani'''<br /> |'''-(t)ta-''' <br /> (before the second vowel of the or. noun)<br /> |&quot;good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''<br /> |'''-aar'''<br /> |&quot;bad&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !With Adjective<br /> !With Affixed Form<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''piktarʃos''' <br /> |&quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''piktarinaʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a little problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''attastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a good idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlaar'''<br /> |&quot;a bad idea&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Certain adjectives have a special, shortened form, which is prefixed to nouns when used attributively. <br /> The most common ones are: <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar'''<br /> |'''nah-''' <br /> |&quot;big&quot;, &quot;large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr'''<br /> |'''ki-''' <br /> (doubles the initial consonant of the noun)<br /> |&quot;small&quot;, &quot;little&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani'''<br /> |'''suw-''' ('''suww-''' before vowels)<br /> |&quot;good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''<br /> |'''dag-''' ('''dagg-''' before vowels)<br /> |&quot;bad&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin'''<br /> |'''sin-''' <br /> |&quot;new&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ'''<br /> |'''dom-''' <br /> |&quot;old&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''mahhalis'''<br /> |'''mah-''' <br /> |&quot;ancient&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''', '''makʃølin'''<br /> |'''møkʃ-''' <br /> |&quot;important&quot;, &quot;great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan'''<br /> |'''tos-''', '''tan-''' <br /> |&quot;beautiful&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki'''<br /> |'''killi-''' <br /> |&quot;false&quot;, &quot;fake&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !With Adjective<br /> !With Prefix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''nahpiktaraʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''kippiktaraʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a small problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''suwwastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a good idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''daggastrønɛl'''<br /> |&quot;a bad idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin dasutr'''<br /> |'''sindasutr''' <br /> |&quot;a new document&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ hedan'''<br /> |'''domhedan''' <br /> |&quot;an old house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''mahhalis kataʃtevan'''<br /> |'''mahkataʃtevan''' <br /> |&quot;an ancient civilization&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen dasutr''', '''makʃølin dasutr'''<br /> |'''møkʃdasutr''' <br /> |&quot;an important document&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen astrønɛl''', '''makʃølin astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''møkʃastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a great idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan dummal'''<br /> |'''tosdummal''', '''tandummal''' <br /> |&quot;a beautiful song&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki bɔrakʃ'''<br /> |'''killibɔrakʃ''' <br /> |&quot;false news&quot;, &quot;fake news&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Predicative Adjectives ===<br /> <br /> An adjective used in predicative function is invariable. Only the full forms of adjectives can be used predicatively. <br /> <br /> Usually a linking verb is employed. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru astrønɛl laje makʃølen.''' || The idea is great.<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru grats alanje befitra.''' || The boy is tired.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is also the possibility of turning adjectives into verbs. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru astrønɛl makʃølnaje.''' || The idea is great.<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru grats abefitranje.''' || The boy is tired.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The most common way to make an adjective into a verb, implying the idea of &quot;be&quot;, is the suffix '''-a-''', which may cause some change in the last syllable of the original adjective. If the adjective already ends in '''-a''', there is no change. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''' <br /> &quot;great&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølna''' <br /> &quot;be great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;be tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani''' <br /> &quot;good&quot;<br /> |'''suwanja''' <br /> &quot;be good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''' <br /> &quot;bad&quot;<br /> |'''daggusa''' <br /> &quot;be bad&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin''' <br /> &quot;new&quot;<br /> |'''sulna''', '''sinna''' <br /> &quot;be new&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ''' <br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dɛtra''' <br /> &quot;be old&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan''' <br /> &quot;beautiful&quot;<br /> |'''tossana''', '''tosna''' <br /> &quot;be beautiful&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''trapter''' <br /> &quot;unique&quot;<br /> |'''traptra''' <br /> &quot;be unique&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃɔtma''' <br /> &quot;sure&quot;, &quot;certain&quot;<br /> |'''ʃɔtama''' <br /> &quot;be sure&quot;, &quot;be certain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kanikli''' <br /> &quot;appropriate&quot;<br /> |'''kankilja''' <br /> &quot;be appropriate&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tubbar''' <br /> &quot;white&quot;<br /> |'''tubabra''' <br /> &quot;be white&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kindis''' <br /> &quot;clear&quot;<br /> |'''kinitsa''' <br /> &quot;be clear&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''turu'''<br /> &quot;wrong&quot;<br /> |'''turva''', '''terva'''<br /> &quot;be wrong&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''divlaas'''<br /> &quot;sick, ill&quot;<br /> |'''dulaasa'''<br /> &quot;be sick, be ill&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Another suffix is '''-(a)st(a)-''', meaning &quot;to get&quot; or &quot;to become&quot;. The first optional '''-a-''' appears when necessary, to avoid unsuitable consonant clusters, while the final '''-a''' is only used in the infinitive form of the verb - i.e., without any suffixes. There are some irregular formations.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''' <br /> &quot;great&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølnasta''' <br /> &quot;become great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitrasta''' <br /> &quot;get tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar''' <br /> &quot;big, large&quot;<br /> |'''nahasta''', '''narasta''' <br /> &quot;get big&quot;, &quot;increase&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr''' <br /> &quot;little, small&quot;<br /> |'''kitrasta''', '''katrasta''', '''kirrasta''' <br /> &quot;get smaller&quot;, &quot;decrease&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani''' <br /> &quot;good&quot;<br /> |'''suwanasta'''<br /> &quot;become good&quot;<br /> <br /> '''suwasta''', '''sawasta''', '''suwnasta''' <br /> <br /> &quot;get better&quot;, &quot;improve&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''' , '''daggussa'''<br /> &quot;bad&quot;<br /> |'''daggusasta''', '''daggussasta''' <br /> &quot;become bad&quot;<br /> <br /> '''daggasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get worse&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ'''<br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛsta'''<br /> &quot;become old&quot;<br /> <br /> '''dotrasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get older&quot;, &quot;to age&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan'''<br /> &quot;beautiful<br /> |'''tossanasta'''<br /> &quot;become beautiful&quot;<br /> <br /> '''tossasta''', '''tosnasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get prettier&quot;, &quot;beautify&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki'''<br /> &quot;false&quot;, &quot;fake&quot;<br /> |'''ablikasta'''<br /> &quot;become invalid&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''divlaas'''<br /> &quot;sick, ill&quot;<br /> |'''dulaasta'''<br /> &quot;be sick, be ill&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> A few other suffixes perform similar tasks, with more specific meanings. These are usually quite regular. The most productive among these suffixes are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-we'''<br /> |&quot;to remain&quot;, &quot;still be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-kas'''<br /> |&quot;to seem&quot;, &quot;to appear&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-ʃyn'''<br /> |&quot;to pretend to be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-dobb(a)-'''<br /> |&quot;to cease to be&quot;, &quot;to be no longer&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-guj'''<br /> |&quot;to be a little bit&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''nøssar''' <br /> &quot;calm&quot;<br /> |'''nøssarwe''' &quot;remain calm&quot;, &quot;keep calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarkaʃ''' &quot;seem/appear calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarʃyn''' &quot;pretend to be calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssardobba''' &quot;cease to be calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarguj''' &quot;be a little calm&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ''' <br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛkaʃ''' &quot;seem/appear old&quot;<br /> <br /> '''dotrɛguj''' &quot;be a little old&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Comparative === <br /> The comparative of superiority of an adjective can be made by adding the suffix '''-ju''' to the stem. This suffix doubles a preceeding consonant, or becomes '''-jju''' when preceeded by a vowel. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''fɛrennju grats''' &quot;a smarter boy&quot;<br /> * '''duʃʃju halajn''' &quot;cleaner water&quot;<br /> * '''selakkju kanaris''' &quot;prettier eyes&quot;<br /> * '''naharrju piktaraʃ''' &quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> * '''kittrju piktaraʃ''' &quot;a little problem&quot; <br /> * '''suwanijju astrønɛl''' &quot;a better idea&quot;<br /> * '''daggussju''' / '''daggussajju astrønɛl''' &quot;a worse idea&quot;<br /> * '''dotrɛjju pɛten''' &quot;an older book&quot;<br /> <br /> Comparative adjectives may be turned into verbs regularly with the suffix '''-a''', which then becomes '''-wa'''. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølennju''' <br /> &quot;greater&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølennjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be greater&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitrajju''' <br /> &quot;more tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitrajjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be more tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwanijju''' <br /> &quot;better&quot;<br /> |'''suwanijjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be better&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulinnju''' <br /> &quot;newer&quot;<br /> |'''sulinnjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be newer&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛjju''' <br /> &quot;older&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛjjuwa'''<br /> &quot;be older&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossannju''' <br /> &quot;more beautiful&quot;<br /> |'''tossannjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be more beautiful&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The complement of a comparison, corresponding to the conjunction &quot;than&quot;, is placed in the ablative case. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''Nuv pɛten laej suwanijju tuhafɛv.''' &quot;This book is better than that one&quot;<br /> * '''Nuv pɛten suwanijjuwaej tuhafɛv.''' (idem)<br /> * '''Tru dukʃatr laej dotrɛjju dɛv egastɛvɛv.''' &quot;The boss is older than the farmer&quot;<br /> * '''Tru dukʃatr dotrɛjjuwaej dɛv egastɛvɛv.''' (idem)<br /> <br /> == Numerals ==<br /> The basic cardinal numbers are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |0 || '''kal''', '''kahtral'''<br /> |-<br /> |1 || '''mihen'''<br /> |-<br /> |2 || '''dahas'''<br /> |-<br /> |3 || '''travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |4 || '''gazen'''<br /> |-<br /> |5 || '''kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |6 || '''pinjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |7 || '''høtak'''<br /> |-<br /> |8 || '''magɛl'''<br /> |-<br /> |9 || '''donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |10 || '''zɛhɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |11 || '''zɛhɛv mihen''', '''zɛvhen'''<br /> |-<br /> |12 || '''zɛhɛv dahas''', '''zɛvdas'''<br /> |-<br /> |13 || '''zɛhɛv travis''', '''zɛvtras'''<br /> |-<br /> |14 || '''zɛhɛv gazen''', '''zɛvzen'''<br /> |-<br /> |15 || '''zɛhɛv kɛʃav''', '''zɛvkʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |16 || '''zɛhɛv pinjan''', '''zɛvpan'''<br /> |-<br /> |17 || '''zɛhɛv høtak''','''zɛvhøk'''<br /> |-<br /> |18 || '''zɛhɛv magɛl''', '''zɛvmal'''<br /> |-<br /> |19 || '''zɛhɛv donwaʒ''', '''zɛvdaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |20 || '''dahassɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |30 || '''travissɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |40 || '''gazennɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |50 || '''kɛʃavvɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |60 || '''pinjannɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |70 || '''høtakkɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |80 || '''magɛllɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |90 || '''donwaʒʒɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |100 || '''lakin'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,000 || '''tatrimi'''<br /> |-<br /> |10,000 || '''zɛhɛv tatrimi'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Numbers are composed by joining the base units above, from bigger to lower. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |23 || '''dahassɛv travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |45 || '''gazennɛv kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |67 || '''pinjannɛv høtak'''<br /> |-<br /> |89 || '''magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |123 || '''lakin dahassɛv travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |456 || '''gazen lakin kɛʃavvɛv pinjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |789 || '''høtak lakin magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,234 || '''tatrimi dahas lakin travissɛv gazen'''<br /> |-<br /> |5,678 || '''kɛʃav tatrimi pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl'''<br /> |-<br /> |12,345 || '''zɛvdas tatrimi travis lakin gazennɛv kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |678,910 || '''pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl tatrimi donwaʒ lakin zɛhɛv'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Ordinal numbers are created with the suffix '''-iki'''. Ex.: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |1st || '''miheniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |2nd || '''dahasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |3rd || '''travisiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |4th || '''gazeniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |5th || '''kɛʃaviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |6th || '''pinjaniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |7th || '''høtakiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |8th || '''magɛliki'''<br /> |-<br /> |9th || '''donwaʒiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |10th || '''zɛhɛviki''', '''zɛhviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |11th || '''zɛvheniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |12th || '''zɛvdasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |13th || '''zɛvtrasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |14th || '''zɛvzeniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |15th || '''zɛvkʃaviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |16th || '''zɛvpaniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |17th || '''zɛvhøkiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |18th || '''zɛvmaliki'''<br /> |-<br /> |19th || '''zɛvdaʒiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |20th || '''dahassɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |30th || '''travissɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |40th || '''gazennɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |50th || '''kɛʃavvɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |60th || '''pinjannɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |70th || '''høtakkɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |80th || '''magɛllɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |90th || '''donwaʒʒɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |100th || '''lakiniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,000th || '''tatrimiiki'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Pronouns ==<br /> <br /> === Personal Pronouns ===<br /> Personal Pronouns in Dahur indicate person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and number (singular, dual, plural).<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|1st Person<br /> |'''dɛ''' &quot;I&quot; , &quot;me&quot;<br /> |'''ʃes''' &quot;we both&quot;<br /> |'''ʃɛn''' &quot;we&quot;, &quot;us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''dɛ'''<br /> |'''ʃes'''<br /> |'''ʃɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''dɛa''', '''da'''<br /> |'''ʃeas''', '''ʃas'''<br /> |'''ʃan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''dɛw''', '''du'''<br /> |'''ʃeus''', '''ʃews''', '''ʃus'''<br /> |'''ʃɛun''', '''ʃɛwn''', '''ʃun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''dɛk'''<br /> |'''ʃesk'''<br /> |'''ʃɛkɛn''', '''ʃkɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''dɛbb'''<br /> |'''ʃeps'''<br /> |'''ʃɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''dɛm'''<br /> |'''ʃems'''<br /> |'''ʃɛom''', '''ʃom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |'''ʃɛfs'''<br /> |'''ʃɛɛv''', '''ʃɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''dɛjøtr''', '''dɛtr'''<br /> |'''ʃesøtr'''<br /> |'''ʃɛtrøn''', '''ʃtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''dɛt'''<br /> |'''ʃets'''<br /> |'''ʃɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|2nd Person<br /> |'''hej''' &quot;you (sg.), thou&quot;<br /> |'''kwes''' &quot;you both&quot;<br /> |'''kwɛn''' &quot;you (pl.)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''hej'''<br /> |'''kwes'''<br /> |'''kwɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''heja''', '''ja'''<br /> |'''kweas''', '''kwas'''<br /> |'''kwɛan''', '''kwan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''heju''', '''ju'''<br /> |'''kweus'''<br /> |'''kwɛun''', '''kun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''heik''', '''hejik'''<br /> |'''kwesk'''<br /> |'''kwɛnek''', '''kwɛnk'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''heibb''', '''hibb'''<br /> |'''kweps'''<br /> |'''kwɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''heim''', '''him'''<br /> |'''kwems'''<br /> |'''kwɛom''', '''kwɛm''', '''kwom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''hejɛv''', '''jɛv'''<br /> |'''kwɛfs'''<br /> |'''kwɛɛv''', '''kwɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''hejøtr''', '''hjøtr'''<br /> |'''kwesøtr'''<br /> |'''kwɛtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Vocative<br /> |'''heje'''<br /> |'''kwejes'''<br /> |'''kwɛjɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''hɛt'''<br /> |'''kwets'''<br /> |'''kwɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|3rd Person<br /> |'''nar''' &quot;he&quot;, &quot;she&quot;, &quot;it&quot;<br /> |'''ras''' &quot;they both&quot;<br /> |'''ren''' &quot;they&quot;, &quot;them&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''nar'''<br /> |'''ras'''<br /> |'''rɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''nara''', '''ra'''<br /> |'''ras'''<br /> |'''rɛan''', '''ran'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''naru''', '''ru'''<br /> |'''raus''', '''raws''', '''rus'''<br /> |'''rɛun''', '''rɛwn''', '''run'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''narɛk''', '''rɛk'''<br /> |'''resk'''<br /> |'''rɛkɛn''', '''ɛrken'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''narebb''', '''rebb'''<br /> |'''reps'''<br /> |'''rɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''narom''', '''rom'''<br /> |'''rems'''<br /> |'''rɛnom''', '''rom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''narɛv''', '''rɛv'''<br /> |'''rɛfs'''<br /> |'''rɛɛv''', '''rɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''narøtr''', '''røtr'''<br /> |'''resøtr'''<br /> |'''rɛtrøn''', '''ɛrtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''rɛt'''<br /> |'''rets'''<br /> |'''rɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The '''genitive''' forms work as possessive pronouns. In that case, the definite article is optional. Ex.: <br /> * '''tru dɛk astrønɛl''', '''dɛk astrønɛl''' &quot;my idea&quot;<br /> * '''na heik kʃalima''', '''heik kʃalima''' &quot;your hair (accus.)&quot;<br /> * '''trom narɛk kɛʃevom''', '''narɛk kɛʃevom''' &quot;with his/her hammer (instr.)&quot;<br /> * '''tu dɛk menirun''', '''dɛk menirun''' &quot;to my children (dat.)&quot;<br /> <br /> Object pronouns usually come before the verb. The shorter, unstressed version is preferred. Ex.: <br /> * '''Ja angenus.''' &quot;I can see you (sing.).&quot;<br /> * '''Kwas angenus.''' &quot;I can see you two.&quot;<br /> * '''Kwan angenus.''' &quot;I can see you (pl.).&quot;<br /> * '''Ra angenus.''' &quot;I can see it/him/her.&quot;<br /> * '''Ras angenus.''' &quot;I can see them both.&quot;<br /> * '''Ran angenus.''' &quot;I can see them.&quot;<br /> * '''Da angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see me.&quot;<br /> * '''ʃas angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see us both.&quot;<br /> * '''ʃan angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see us.&quot;<br /> <br /> An object pronoun may also appear after the verb. In that case, the preference is for the longer, stressed versions. Ex.:<br /> * '''Angenus ja/heja.''' &quot;I can see you (sing.).&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus kweas/kwas.''' &quot;I can see you two.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus kwɛan/kwan.''' &quot;I can see you (pl.).&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus nara/ra.''' &quot;I can see it/him/her.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus ras.''' &quot;I can see them both.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus rɛan/ran.''' &quot;I can see them.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej dɛa/da.''' &quot;He/she can see me.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej ʃeas/ʃas.''' &quot;He/she can see us both.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej ʃan.''' &quot;He/she can see us.&quot;<br /> <br /> The most common case for a verb complement is the accusative. However, verbs may require different cases. Ex.: <br /> * '''Kun dagsuttoj!''' &quot;It will harm you!&quot; / &quot;It will be harmful to you!&quot; ('''dagusta''' &quot;harm, be harmful&quot; + dat.)<br /> * '''Ja/Ju darʃinɔn.''' &quot;We trust you.&quot; ('''darʃin''' &quot;trust&quot; + acc./dat.)<br /> * '''Poglattindsa narɛv/rɛv''' &quot;I didn't use it.&quot; ('''poglar''' &quot;use&quot; + abl.)<br /> * '''Ra twiʃnettmis.''' &quot;You drank it (all).&quot; / '''Rɛt twiʃnettmis.''' &quot;You drank (some of) it.&quot; '''twiʃin''' &quot;drink&quot; +acc. (whole), +part. (specific amount)<br /> <br /> === Demonstrative Pronouns ===<br /> The main demonstrative pronouns are: <br /> <br /> * '''nuv''' &quot;this, these&quot;<br /> * '''tuhaf''' &quot;that, those&quot;<br /> <br /> When accompanying a noun, they behave as adjectives and are not inflected. <br /> <br /> When used on their own, they stand as nouns and are inflected according to the class of the intended noun. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''Nuv grats laej fɛrennju nuvɛv.''' &quot;This boy is smarter than this one.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> === Interrogative Pronouns ===<br /> <br /> === Indefinite Pronouns ===<br /> <br /> === Relative Pronoun ===<br /> The main relative pronoun in Dahur is '''jao''', as shown in the following table. <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''jao'''<br /> |'''jes'''<br /> |'''jen'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''jaa''', '''ja'''<br /> |'''jeas''', '''jas'''<br /> |'''jaan''', '''jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''jau''', '''jaw'''<br /> |'''jeus''', '''jews'''<br /> |'''jeun''', '''jewn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''jak'''<br /> |'''jesk'''<br /> |'''jenk'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''jaebb'''<br /> |'''jaeps'''<br /> |'''jaemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''jaom'''<br /> |'''jaoms'''<br /> |'''jaom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''jaɛv'''<br /> |'''jaɛfs'''<br /> |'''janɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''jaøtr'''<br /> |'''jasøtr'''<br /> |'''jatrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> | - <br /> |'''jets'''<br /> |'''jent'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The pronoun agrees in number with the antecedent, but its case is determined by its function in the subordinate clause. Ex.:<br /> * '''tru grats jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;the boy (nom.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''na gratsa jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;the boy (accus.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''kʃu gratsu jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;to the boy (dat.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''kis gratsak jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;of the boy (gen.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''trø gratsøtr jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;by the boy (erg.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''tann gratsen jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;the boys (nom.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''ta gratsan jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;the boys (accus.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tun gratsun jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;to the boys (dat.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tak gratsken jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr gratsetrøn jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tru grats jaa kahettsa''' &quot;the boy (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''na gratsa jaa kahettsa''' &quot;the boy (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''kʃu gratsu jaa kahettsa''' &quot;to the boy (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''kis gratsak jaa kahettsa''' &quot;of the boy (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''trø gratsøtr jaa kahettsa''' &quot;by the boy (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tann gratsen jaan kahettsa''' &quot;the boys (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''ta gratsan jaan kahettsa''' &quot;the boys (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tun gratsun jaan kahettsa''' &quot;to the boys (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tak gratsken jaan kahettsa''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr gratsetrøn jaan kahettsa''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> <br /> Besides this pronoun, relative clauses may also be formed with participles. <br /> <br /> Ex.:<br /> <br /> * '''tru ateʃfanur grats''' &quot;the boy (nom.) who is running away&quot; <br /> * '''na ateʃfanur gratsa''' &quot;the boy (accus.) who is running away&quot; <br /> * '''tak ateʃfanur gratsken''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) who are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tru dɛtr kahettek grats''', '''tru grats dɛtr kahettek''' &quot;the boy (nom.) whom I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr dɛtr kahettek gratsetrøn''', '''tøtr gratsetrøn dɛtr kahettek''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) whom I saw&quot;<br /> <br /> == Verbs ==<br /> <br /> === Finite Forms ===<br /> <br /> Verbs in Dahur have different stems indicating aspect. The conjugation uses different sets of endings to indicate tense or time. <br /> <br /> The basic verb stems are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Aspect<br /> !Meaning<br /> !Form<br /> |-<br /> |Generic<br /> |''verbal idea without a specific context, time or aspect''<br /> |the basic stem of the verb<br /> |-<br /> |Cursive (Progressive; Continuous)<br /> |''action ongoing at the moment of reference<br /> |prefix '''a-''' and suffix '''-(a)n-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Aorist<br /> |''a complete or punctual action''<br /> |suffix '''-(e)tt-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Perfect<br /> |''the result of an action that happened before the reference time''<br /> |suffix '''-(l)l(a)-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Unrealised (Future)<br /> |''action as not realised in relation to the reference time''<br /> |prefix '''u-''' and suffix '''-(u)ʃ-''' <br /> |-<br /> |Conditional<br /> |''irrealis, usually an action depending on another''<br /> |prefix '''i-''' (doubling the initial consonant) and suffix '''-i-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Stem formation is often irregular. <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Generic<br /> !Cursive<br /> !Aorist<br /> !Perfect<br /> !Unrealised<br /> !Conditional <br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmal-'''<br /> |'''akʃmalan-'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalett-'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalla-'''<br /> |'''ukaʃmaluʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkaʃmali-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''la-'''<br /> |'''alan-'''<br /> |'''latt-'''<br /> |'''lalla-'''<br /> |'''ulauʃ-'''<br /> |'''illai-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''wennin''' &quot;live&quot; <br /> |'''wennin-'''<br /> |'''awann-'''<br /> |'''wennett-'''<br /> |'''wennilla-'''<br /> |'''uwenninʃ-'''<br /> |'''iwennini-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadra-'''<br /> |'''agandran-'''<br /> |'''gadrett-'''<br /> |'''gadralla-'''<br /> |'''ugadruʃ-'''<br /> |'''iggadri-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''tefʃiv''' &quot;flee&quot;<br /> |'''tefʃiv-'''<br /> |'''ateʃfan-'''<br /> |'''tefʃivett-'''<br /> |'''tefʃivla-'''<br /> |'''utefʃivuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittefʃivi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maʃkintɾod''' &quot;represent&quot;<br /> |'''maʃkintɾod-'''<br /> |'''amaʃkintɾon-'''<br /> |'''maʃkintɾott-'''<br /> |'''maʃkintɾolla-'''<br /> |'''umaʃkintɾotʃ-'''<br /> |'''immaʃkintɾodi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kajnaar''' &quot;jump&quot;<br /> |'''kajnaar-'''<br /> |'''akajnaan-'''<br /> |'''kajnerett-'''<br /> |'''kajnaalla-'''<br /> |'''ukajnaaruʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkajnaari-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys''' &quot;take care of&quot;<br /> |'''taldesyys-'''<br /> |'''ataldesyyn-'''<br /> |'''taldesyyst-'''<br /> |'''taldesyyll-'''<br /> |'''utaldesyyʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittaldesyysi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kota-'''<br /> |'''ankon-'''<br /> |'''kotatt-'''<br /> |'''kekolla-'''<br /> |'''ukotuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkoti-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussi-'''<br /> |'''ahsejn-'''<br /> |'''hust-'''<br /> |'''huzilla-'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ihusseji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''ken-''', '''kena-'''<br /> |'''angen-'''<br /> |'''kahett-'''<br /> |'''kenalla-''', '''kralla-'''<br /> |'''ukunuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkeni-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''mend''' &quot;become&quot;<br /> |'''mend-'''<br /> |'''amdan-'''<br /> |'''menett-'''<br /> |'''mendla-'''<br /> |'''umenduʃ-'''<br /> |'''immendi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustaj-''', '''ustaji-'''<br /> |'''anstajn-''', '''anstajin-'''<br /> |'''ustatt-''', '''ustitt-'''<br /> |'''ustalla-''', '''ustilla-'''<br /> |'''ustajuʃ-'''<br /> |'''istaji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''maj-'''<br /> |'''amann-'''<br /> |'''menett-'''<br /> |'''mjalla-'''<br /> |'''umujuʃ-'''<br /> |'''immaji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trak-'''<br /> |'''atrakan-'''<br /> |'''tetrakett-'''<br /> |'''ketralla-'''<br /> |'''utrakʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittraggi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''pakt''' &quot;understand&quot;<br /> |'''pakt-'''<br /> |'''ampakn-'''<br /> |'''pakett-'''<br /> |'''paktalla-'''<br /> |'''upaktuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ippakti-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''durʃin''' &quot;seem, appear&quot;<br /> |'''durʃin-'''<br /> |'''adurʃan-'''<br /> |'''durʃint-'''<br /> |'''durʃilla-'''<br /> |'''udurʃinʃ-'''<br /> |'''iddurʃini-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka''' &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |'''ʃaka-'''<br /> |'''aʃkan-'''<br /> |'''ʃakkatt-'''<br /> |'''ʃakalla-'''<br /> |'''uʃakkuʃ-'''<br /> |'''iʃakki-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kʃa''' [passive voice auxiliary]<br /> |'''kʃa-'''<br /> |'''akʃan-'''<br /> |'''kʃatt-'''<br /> |'''kʃalla-'''<br /> |'''ukʃuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkʃi-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The personal endings are : <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Present<br /> !Past<br /> !Future<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-sa'''<br /> |'''-os'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''-im'''<br /> |'''-mis'''<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''-ej'''<br /> |'''-jes'''<br /> |'''-oj'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''-ɔn'''<br /> |'''-sɔn'''<br /> |'''-on'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''-ib'''<br /> |'''-ips'''<br /> |'''-ob'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''-ɛw'''<br /> |'''-sɛw'''<br /> |'''-ow'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The following combinations of stem + ending set occur: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |Present<br /> |Past<br /> |Future<br /> |-<br /> |Generic<br /> !Simple <br /> Present<br /> !Habitual<br /> Past (&quot;used to&quot;)<br /> !Indefinite<br /> Future<br /> |-<br /> |Cursive<br /> !Present<br /> Continuous<br /> !Past <br /> Continuous<br /> !Future<br /> Progressive<br /> |-<br /> |Aorist<br /> |<br /> !Simple <br /> Past (Aorist)<br /> !Definite Future<br /> (Specific, Punctual)<br /> |-<br /> |Perfect<br /> !Present <br /> Perfect<br /> !Past<br /> Perfect<br /> !Future <br /> Perfect<br /> |-<br /> |Unrealised<br /> !Near <br /> Future<br /> !Unrealised <br /> Past (&quot;would&quot;)<br /> !Future <br /> (Remote) <br /> |-<br /> |Conditional <br /> !Conditional <br /> Present<br /> !Conditional <br /> Past<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> For the imperative, the base form of the verb is used. Optionally, the particle '''a''' can be used before the verb. Ex.: <br /> * '''Kaʃmal!''' / '''A kaʃmal!''' &quot;Take!&quot;<br /> * '''Hussi!''' / '''A hussi!''' &quot;Listen!&quot;<br /> * '''Spa kajnaar!''' / '''A spa kajnaar!''' &quot;Don't jump!&quot;<br /> <br /> While the formation of aspect stems is often irregular, the combination of stem + endings is usually quite regular and predictable. The usual epenthetic phonemes occur, mostly the semivowels ('''j''' and '''w'''), when two vowels come together, but these are more an artifact of speech and aren't usually indicated in writing. Ex.: <br /> * '''kaʃmallaus''', '''kaʃmallawus''' <br /> * '''kaʃmallaim''', '''kaʃmallajim''' <br /> * '''kaʃmallaej''', '''kaʃmallajej''', '''kaʃmallahej'''<br /> * '''kaʃmallaɔn''', '''kaʃmallawɔn''' <br /> * '''iggadriips''', '''iggadrijips'''<br /> * '''iggadrius''', '''iggadrijus'''<br /> * &amp;c.<br /> <br /> ==== Negative ====<br /> <br /> The infix '''-(i)nd-''', placed before the personal endings, makes a verb negative. Ex.: <br /> * '''landus''' &quot;I am not&quot;<br /> * '''lattindsɛw''' &quot;they weren't&quot;<br /> * '''hussindoj''' &quot;he/she won't listen&quot;<br /> * '''ateʃfanindips''' &quot;you weren't running away&quot;<br /> <br /> The emphatic negative particle '''spa''' may be used before the verb, always in the negative form. Ex.: <br /> * '''spa landus''' &quot;I am most certainly not&quot;<br /> * '''spa lattindsɛw''' &quot;they definitely weren't&quot;<br /> * '''spa hussindoj''' &quot;he/she will not listen at all&quot;<br /> * '''spa ateʃfanindips''' &quot;you really weren't running away&quot;<br /> <br /> This particle '''spa''' is also used in a negative command, with the base form of the verb. In that case, it doesn't necessarily have an emphatic meaning. Ex.: <br /> * '''Spa hussi!''' / '''A spa hussi!''' &quot;Don't listen!&quot;<br /> <br /> === Nominal Forms ===<br /> <br /> ==== Infinitive ==== <br /> <br /> The Dahur verb has infinitives for the Generic, Cursive, Aorist, Perfect and Unrealised aspects. They are formed by adding the ending '''-eh''' to the corresponding stem. The prefix '''u-''' of the Unrealised aspect is optional in the infinitive. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Generic<br /> !Cursive<br /> !Aorist<br /> !Perfect<br /> !Unrealised<br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmaleh'''<br /> |'''akʃmalaneh'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaletteh'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaeh'''<br /> |'''ukaʃmaluʃeh''', '''kaʃmaluʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''laeh'''<br /> |'''alaneh'''<br /> |'''latteh'''<br /> |'''lallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)lauʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadraeh'''<br /> |'''agandraneh'''<br /> |'''gadretteh'''<br /> |'''gadrallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)gadruʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kotaeh'''<br /> |'''ankoneh'''<br /> |'''kotatteh'''<br /> |'''kekollaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)kotuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussieh'''<br /> |'''ahsejneh'''<br /> |'''husteh'''<br /> |'''huzillaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)hussuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''keneh'''<br /> |'''angeneh'''<br /> |'''kahetteh'''<br /> |'''kenallaeh''', '''krallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)kunuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustajeh'''<br /> |'''anstajneh'''<br /> |'''ustatteh''', '''ustitteh'''<br /> |'''ustallaeh''', '''ustillaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)stajuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''majeh'''<br /> |'''amanneh'''<br /> |'''menetteh'''<br /> |'''mjallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)mujuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trakeh'''<br /> |'''atrakaneh'''<br /> |'''tetraketteh'''<br /> |'''ketrallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)trakʃeh'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The infinitive may be used as a noun, but also with certain auxiliary verbs. When a participle is used as a noun, usually the definite article may be omitted. Ex.: <br /> <br /> *'''(Tru) kotaeh laej suwani.''' / '''(Tru) kotaeh suwanjaej.''' &quot;Eating is good.&quot;<br /> <br /> ==== Participle ====<br /> Participles are built by adding specific suffixes to the corresponding stems of the verb: <br /> * '''-ur''' (active participle)<br /> * '''-ek''' (passive participle)<br /> <br /> The prefix '''u-''' of the unrealised stem is dropped.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Generic<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Cursive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Aorist<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmalur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalek'''<br /> |'''akʃmalanur'''<br /> |'''akʃmalanek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalettur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalettek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaur''', '''kaʃmallur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaek''', '''kaʃmallek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaluʃur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaluʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''laur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''alanur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lattur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lallaur''', '''lallur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lauʃur'''<br /> | <br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadraur'''<br /> |'''gadraek'''<br /> |'''agandranur'''<br /> |'''agandranek'''<br /> |'''gadrettur'''<br /> |'''gadrettek'''<br /> |'''gadrallur'''<br /> |'''gadrallek'''<br /> |'''gadruʃur'''<br /> |'''gadruʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kotaur'''<br /> |'''kotaek'''<br /> |'''ankonur'''<br /> |'''ankonek'''<br /> |'''kotattur'''<br /> |'''kotattek'''<br /> |'''kekollur'''<br /> |'''kekollek'''<br /> |'''kotuʃur'''<br /> |'''kotuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussiur'''<br /> |'''hussiek'''<br /> |'''ahsejnur'''<br /> |'''ahsejnek'''<br /> |'''hustur'''<br /> |'''hustek'''<br /> |'''huzillaur'''<br /> |'''huzillaek'''<br /> |'''hussuʃur'''<br /> |'''hussuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''kenur'''<br /> |'''kenek'''<br /> |'''angenur'''<br /> |'''angenek'''<br /> |'''kahettur'''<br /> |'''kahettek'''<br /> |'''kenallur''', '''krallur'''<br /> |'''kenallek''', '''krallek'''<br /> |'''kunuʃur'''<br /> |'''kunuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustajur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''anstajnur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustattur''', '''ustittur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustallur''', '''ustillek'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustajuʃur'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''majur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''amannur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''menettur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''mjallur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''mujuʃur'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trakur'''<br /> |'''trakek'''<br /> |'''atrakanur'''<br /> |'''atrakanek'''<br /> |'''tetrakettur'''<br /> |'''tetrakettek'''<br /> |'''ketrallur'''<br /> |'''ketrallek'''<br /> |'''trakʃur'''<br /> |'''trakʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka''' &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |'''ʃakaur'''<br /> |'''ʃakaek'''<br /> |'''aʃkanur'''<br /> |'''aʃkanek'''<br /> |'''ʃakkattur'''<br /> |'''ʃakkattek'''<br /> |'''ʃakallur'''<br /> |'''ʃakallek'''<br /> |'''ʃakkuʃur'''<br /> |'''ʃakkuʃek'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The corresponding negative versions of these participles are formed regularly with the suffix '''-(i)nd-'''. Ex.:<br /> * '''landur''' &quot;not being&quot;<br /> * '''angenindur''' &quot;not seeing&quot;<br /> * '''gradrettindek''' &quot;not written&quot;<br /> * '''ketrallindur''' &quot;who/which had not done&quot;<br /> * '''aʃkanindek''' &quot;which isn't being hunted&quot;<br /> <br /> === Passive Voice ===<br /> <br /> The passive voice is built with the auxiliary '''kʃa''', conjugated regularly, followed by the base form of the verb. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''akʃanus taldesyys''' &quot;I'm being taken care of&quot;<br /> * '''akʃanindmis ken''' &quot;you were not being seen&quot;<br /> * '''kʃallaɔn kaʃmal''' &quot;we have been taken&quot;<br /> * '''kʃattsɛw kota''' &quot;they were eaten&quot;<br /> * '''ikkʃindej trak''' &quot;if it's not done&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> === Conjugation ===<br /> Next you have a few verbs, conjugated in all its forms.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|Verb '''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Present<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Continuous <br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Perfect <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Near Future <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Present <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''laus'''<br /> |'''landus'''<br /> |'''alanus'''<br /> |'''alanindus'''<br /> |'''lallaus'''<br /> |'''lallandus'''<br /> |'''ulauʃus'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindus'''<br /> |'''illaius'''<br /> |'''illaindus'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''laim'''<br /> |'''landim'''<br /> |'''alanim'''<br /> |'''alanindim'''<br /> |'''lallaim'''<br /> |'''lallandim'''<br /> |'''ulauʃim'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindim'''<br /> |'''illaiim'''<br /> |'''illaindim'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''laej'''<br /> |'''landej'''<br /> |'''alanej'''<br /> |'''alanindej'''<br /> |'''lallaej'''<br /> |'''lallandej'''<br /> |'''ulauʃej'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindej'''<br /> |'''illaiej'''<br /> |'''illaindej'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''laɔn'''<br /> |'''landɔn'''<br /> |'''alanɔn'''<br /> |'''alanindɔn'''<br /> |'''lallaɔn'''<br /> |'''lallandɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindɔn'''<br /> |'''illaiɔn'''<br /> |'''illaindɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laib'''<br /> |'''landib'''<br /> |'''alanib'''<br /> |'''alanindib'''<br /> |'''lallaib'''<br /> |'''lallandib'''<br /> |'''ulauʃib'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindib'''<br /> |'''illaiib'''<br /> |'''illaindib'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''laɛw'''<br /> |'''landɛw'''<br /> |'''alanɛw'''<br /> |'''alanindɛw'''<br /> |'''lallaɛw'''<br /> |'''lallandɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindɛw'''<br /> |'''illaiɛw'''<br /> |'''illaindɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Habitual Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Continuous <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Past <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Past <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''lasa'''<br /> |'''landsa'''<br /> |'''alansa'''<br /> |'''alanindsa'''<br /> |'''lattsa'''<br /> |'''lattindsa'''<br /> |'''lallasa'''<br /> |'''lallandsa'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsa'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsa'''<br /> |'''illaisa'''<br /> |'''illaindsa'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''lamis'''<br /> |'''landmis'''<br /> |'''alanmis'''<br /> |'''alanindmis'''<br /> |'''lattmis'''<br /> |'''lattindmis'''<br /> |'''lallamis'''<br /> |'''lallandmis'''<br /> |'''ulauʃmis'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindmis'''<br /> |'''illaimis'''<br /> |'''illaindmis'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''lajes'''<br /> |'''landjes'''<br /> |'''alanjes'''<br /> |'''alanindjes'''<br /> |'''lattjes'''<br /> |'''lattindjes'''<br /> |'''lallajes'''<br /> |'''lallandjes'''<br /> |'''ulauʃjes'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindjes'''<br /> |'''illaijes'''<br /> |'''illaindjes'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''lasɔn'''<br /> |'''landsɔn'''<br /> |'''alansɔn'''<br /> |'''alanindsɔn'''<br /> |'''lattsɔn'''<br /> |'''lattindsɔn'''<br /> |'''lallasɔn'''<br /> |'''lallandsɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsɔn'''<br /> |'''illaisɔn'''<br /> |'''illaiindsɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laips'''<br /> |'''landips'''<br /> |'''alanips'''<br /> |'''alanindips'''<br /> |'''lattips'''<br /> |'''lattindips'''<br /> |'''lallaips'''<br /> |'''lallandips'''<br /> |'''ulauʃips'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindips'''<br /> |'''illaiips'''<br /> |'''illaindips'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''lasɛw'''<br /> |'''landsɛw'''<br /> |'''alansɛw'''<br /> |'''alanindsɛw'''<br /> |'''lattsɛw'''<br /> |'''lattindsɛw'''<br /> |'''lallasɛw'''<br /> |'''lallandsɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsɛw'''<br /> |'''illaisɛw'''<br /> |'''illaindsɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Indefinite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Progressive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Definite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Remote Future<br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''laos'''<br /> |'''landos'''<br /> |'''alanos'''<br /> |'''alanindos'''<br /> |'''lattos'''<br /> |'''lattindos'''<br /> |'''lallaos'''<br /> |'''lallandos'''<br /> |'''ulauʃos'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindos'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''laom'''<br /> |'''landom'''<br /> |'''alanom'''<br /> |'''alanindom'''<br /> |'''lattom'''<br /> |'''lattindom'''<br /> |'''lallaom'''<br /> |'''lallandom'''<br /> |'''ulauʃom'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindom'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''laoj'''<br /> |'''landoj'''<br /> |'''alanoj'''<br /> |'''alanindoj'''<br /> |'''lattoj'''<br /> |'''lattindoj'''<br /> |'''lallaoj'''<br /> |'''lallandoj'''<br /> |'''ulauʃoj'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindoj'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''laon'''<br /> |'''landon'''<br /> |'''alanon'''<br /> |'''alanindon'''<br /> |'''latton'''<br /> |'''lattindon'''<br /> |'''lallaon'''<br /> |'''lallandon'''<br /> |'''ulauʃon'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindon'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laob'''<br /> |'''landob'''<br /> |'''alanob'''<br /> |'''alanindob'''<br /> |'''lattob'''<br /> |'''lattindob'''<br /> |'''lallaob'''<br /> |'''lallandob'''<br /> |'''ulauʃob'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindob'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''laow'''<br /> |'''landow'''<br /> |'''alanow'''<br /> |'''alanindow'''<br /> |'''lattow'''<br /> |'''lattindow'''<br /> |'''lallaow'''<br /> |'''lallandow'''<br /> |'''ulauʃow'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindow'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|Verb '''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Present<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Continuous <br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Perfect <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Near Future <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Present <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussius'''<br /> |'''hussindus'''<br /> |'''ahsejnus'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindus'''<br /> |'''huzillaus'''<br /> |'''huzillandus'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃus'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindus'''<br /> |'''ihussejius'''<br /> |'''ihussejindus'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussiim'''<br /> |'''hussindim'''<br /> |'''ahsejnim'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindim'''<br /> |'''huzillaim'''<br /> |'''huzillandim'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃim'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindim'''<br /> |'''ihussejiim'''<br /> |'''ihussejindim'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussije'''<br /> |'''hussindje'''<br /> |'''ahsejnje'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindje'''<br /> |'''huzillaje'''<br /> |'''huzillandje'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃje'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindje'''<br /> |'''ihussejije'''<br /> |'''ihussejindje'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussiɔn'''<br /> |'''hussindɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillaɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillandɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejiɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejindɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiib'''<br /> |'''hussindib'''<br /> |'''ahsejnib'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindib'''<br /> |'''huzillaib'''<br /> |'''huzillandib'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃib'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindib'''<br /> |'''ihussejiib'''<br /> |'''ihussejindib'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussiɛw'''<br /> |'''hussindɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillaɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillandɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejiɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejindɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Habitual Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Continuous <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Past <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Past <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussisa'''<br /> |'''hussindsa'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsa'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsa'''<br /> |'''hustsa'''<br /> |'''hustindsa'''<br /> |'''huzillasa'''<br /> |'''huzillandsa'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsa'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsa'''<br /> |'''ihussejisa'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsa'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussimis'''<br /> |'''hussindmis'''<br /> |'''ahsejnmis'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindmis'''<br /> |'''hustmis'''<br /> |'''hustindmis'''<br /> |'''huzillamis'''<br /> |'''huzillandmis'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃmis'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindmis'''<br /> |'''ihussejimis'''<br /> |'''ihussejindmis'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussijes'''<br /> |'''hussindjes'''<br /> |'''ahsejnjes'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindjes'''<br /> |'''hustjes'''<br /> |'''hustindjes'''<br /> |'''huzillajes'''<br /> |'''huzillandjes'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃjes'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindjes'''<br /> |'''ihussejijes'''<br /> |'''ihussejindjes'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussisɔn'''<br /> |'''hussindsɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsɔn'''<br /> |'''hustsɔn'''<br /> |'''hustindsɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillasɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillandsɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejisɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiips'''<br /> |'''hussindips'''<br /> |'''ahsejnips'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindips'''<br /> |'''hustips'''<br /> |'''hustindips'''<br /> |'''huzillaips'''<br /> |'''huzillandips'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃips'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindips'''<br /> |'''ihussejiips'''<br /> |'''ihussejindips'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussisɛw'''<br /> |'''hussindsɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsɛw'''<br /> |'''hustsɛw'''<br /> |'''hustindsɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillasɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillandsɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejisɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Indefinite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Progressive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Definite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Remote Future<br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussios'''<br /> |'''hussindos'''<br /> |'''ahsejnos'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindos'''<br /> |'''hustos'''<br /> |'''hustindos'''<br /> |'''huzillaos'''<br /> |'''huzillandos'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃos'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindos'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussiom'''<br /> |'''hussindom'''<br /> |'''ahsejnom'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindom'''<br /> |'''hustom'''<br /> |'''hustindom'''<br /> |'''huzillaom'''<br /> |'''huzillandom'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃom'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindom'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussioj'''<br /> |'''hussindoj'''<br /> |'''ahsejnoj'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindoj'''<br /> |'''hustoj'''<br /> |'''hustindoj'''<br /> |'''huzillaoj'''<br /> |'''huzillandoj'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃoj'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindoj'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussion'''<br /> |'''hussindon'''<br /> |'''ahsejnon'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindon'''<br /> |'''huston'''<br /> |'''hustindon'''<br /> |'''huzillaon'''<br /> |'''huzillandon'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃon'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindon'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiob'''<br /> |'''hussindob'''<br /> |'''ahsejnob'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindob'''<br /> |'''hustob'''<br /> |'''hustindob'''<br /> |'''huzillaob'''<br /> |'''huzillandob'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃob'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindob'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussiow'''<br /> |'''hussindow'''<br /> |'''ahsejnow'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindow'''<br /> |'''hustow'''<br /> |'''hustindow'''<br /> |'''huzillaow'''<br /> |'''huzillandow'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃow'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindow'''<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Incorporation ===<br /> Besides complementing a verb with a noun phrase in the accusative (or some other) case, complements may be incorporated in the verb. This resource is particularly common with more frequent verb + complement combinations. Common verbs, especially indicating more fundamental actions such as &quot;eat&quot;, &quot;drink&quot;, &quot;take&quot;, &quot;speak&quot;, &quot;make&quot;, &quot;kill&quot; &amp;c. are more prone to this type of constructions, while more abstract verbs, as well as less frequently used verbs, tend to follow the more conventional verb + complement approach. <br /> <br /> When a complement is incorporated to a verb, it receives the prefix '''s-''' and is placed before the verb root. Irregularities are not uncommon. <br /> Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Regular Construction<br /> !Incorporation<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota ʃøga'''<br /> |'''sʃøgkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat meat&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota dabasa'''<br /> |'''sdabaskota'''<br /> |&quot;eat bread&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota drupala'''<br /> |'''sdrupalkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat vegetables&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota pinim'''<br /> |'''spinimkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat fruit&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''twiʃin halajna'''<br /> |'''shalantwiʃin'''<br /> |&quot;drink water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''twiʃin myndra'''<br /> |'''smyndtwiʃin'''<br /> |&quot;drink alcoholic beverage&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys menira'''<br /> |'''smeniraldesyys'''<br /> |&quot;take care of a child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys apsala'''<br /> |'''sapsaldesyys'''<br /> |&quot;take care of everything&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi tuglaa'''<br /> |'''stuglussi'''<br /> |&quot;hear a noise&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka pœrakʃa'''<br /> |'''spœrakʃaka'''<br /> |&quot;hunt a beast&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak tilmara'''<br /> |'''stilmatrak'''<br /> |&quot;make a mistake&quot;<br /> |}</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Conlangs/Dahur&diff=5381 Conlangs/Dahur 2026-09-13T01:49:46Z <p>Panglossa: /* Predicative Adjectives */</p> <hr /> <div>{{DISPLAYTITLE:Dahur}}<br /> {{RightTOC}}<br /> =Phonology=<br /> <br /> ==Vowels==<br /> <br /> Dahur vowels are usually short. Double vowels (ex.: aa, ee &amp;c.) may happen, but they are considered as simple vowel sequences.<br /> <br /> The following vowels qualities are distinguished: <br /> <br /> '''a''' '''e''' '''ɛ''' '''i''' '''o''' '''ɔ''' '''ø''' '''œ''' '''u''' '''y'''<br /> <br /> The diagram below shows the 10 vowels of Dahur.<br /> <br /> [[File:dahurvowels.png|link=]]<br /> <br /> In practice, the vowel /a/ may actually vary between /a/, /ä/ and /ɑ/.<br /> <br /> Merging of /ø/ and /œ/ is fairly common, especially in more informal contexts, as these two vowels mostly don't occur as minimal pair (except in a couple cases).<br /> <br /> ==Consonants==<br /> <br /> Dahur consonants are as follows: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;border-width:0px&quot;|<br /> !Bilabial<br /> !Labiodental<br /> !Alveolar<br /> !Postalveolar<br /> !Palatal<br /> !Velar<br /> !Glottal<br /> |-<br /> !Nasal<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''m'''<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''n'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Plosive<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''p''' '''b'''<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''t''' '''d'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''k''' '''g'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Sibilant fricative<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''s''' '''z'''<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''ʃ''' '''ʒ''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Non-sibilant fricative<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''f''' '''v''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''h'''<br /> |-<br /> !Approximant<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''j'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Tap/Flap/Trill<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''ɾ''' '''r''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Lateral Approx.<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''l'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The rhotic consonant ('''r''') is in free variation and may be realised either as a tap, a flap or a trill. The trill pronunciation (/r/) is more common at the beginning of a syllable, and even more so at the beginning of a word. The tap/flap pronunciation (/ɾ/) is more common in consonant clusters, especially after a plosive. <br /> <br /> In Dahur phonology, the combinations '''tr''' and '''kʃ''' count as single, independent consonants.<br /> <br /> ==Phonotactics==<br /> A syllable in Dahur must contain one vowel, which may be preceded and/or followed by any number of consonants. In practice, consonant clusters don't usually go beyond four consonants. For that account, '''kʃ''' and '''tɾ''' are always considered as single consonants. <br /> <br /> All consonant sequences are possible. However, in practice, some consonant combinations (ex. '''-hm-''', '''-tɾkʃ-''' &amp;c.) are rare.<br /> <br /> Some studies consider the existence of a glottal stop when a proper consonant is absent. This view is reflected in the writing, which has a special sign for the glottal stop / lack of a consonant. The last consonant of a syllable can be doubled. <br /> <br /> Examples of valid syllables: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''a'''<br /> | '''tɛ'''<br /> | '''en'''<br /> | '''wi'''<br /> | '''koj'''<br /> | '''gjɔ'''<br /> | '''pɾujn'''<br /> | '''kʃtɾa'''<br /> | '''fʃtlœmbz'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Stress==<br /> In the standard pronunciation, words are stressed on the next-to-last syllable. However, if the last syllable contains the consonant /tɾ/, it will be stressed.<br /> <br /> Ex.:<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''&lt;u&gt;ka&lt;/u&gt;nar''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/ˈka.nar/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''os&lt;u&gt;trøn&lt;/u&gt;dɛl''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/os.ˈtɾøn.dɛl/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''&lt;u&gt;tef&lt;/u&gt;ʃiv''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/ˈtef.ʃiv/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''da&lt;u&gt;sutɾ&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/daˈsutɾ/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''maʃkin&lt;u&gt;tɾod&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/maʃ.kinˈtɾod/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Doubled vowels in the last syllable may sound as a long, stressed vowel; however, they are actually two separate vowels, each one in a different syllable, with stress falling on the first one (or on the last, in case that syllable contains the consonant '''tr'''). It is not uncommon to hear an epenthetic '''h''', '''j''' or '''w''' between the two vowels.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kaj&lt;u&gt;na&lt;/u&gt;ar''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/kaj.ˈna.ar/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/kaj.ˈna.har/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> | '''pakisa&lt;u&gt;atr&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/pa.ki.sa.ˈatr/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/pa.ki.sa.ˈhatr/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> | '''tøndel&lt;u&gt;li&lt;/u&gt;in''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.in/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.jin/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.hin/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''talde&lt;u&gt;sy&lt;/u&gt;ys''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tal.de.ˈsy.ys/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tal.de.ˈsy.hys/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =Writing=<br /> <br /> [[Dahur script]] consists in an alphasyllabary consisting in separate letters indicating consonants, a combination of separate letters and diacritics to indicate vowels, as well as certain special letters for individual syllables.<br /> <br /> =Morphology=<br /> <br /> Dahur is a highly flexional language, with a strong presence of irregular forms.<br /> <br /> Nouns inflect for number, which is basically singular and plural, but there are also occurrences of dual (for things normally occurring in pairs) and singulative (for individual items of things usually found collectively). <br /> <br /> Nouns also inflect for case, usually: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, locative, instrumental, ergative and ablative. Instances of partitive and vocative are also found. The case called ergative is used basically for the agent of the passive voice.<br /> <br /> Adjectives show no agreement to nouns, and inflect for degree (comparatives of superiority, equality, inferiority; relative and absolute superlative).<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Nouns==<br /> <br /> <br /> === Class ===<br /> <br /> Dahurian nouns are divided in five classes, which can be compared to Latin or Greek declensions, as they consist in different inflection patterns, but may also be seen as a form of gender, as class is usually (but not always necessarily) related to the meaning of a noun. <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class 1<br /> |Living beings<br /> |-<br /> !Class 2<br /> |General objects<br /> |-<br /> !Class 3<br /> |Natural elements; insects<br /> |-<br /> !Class 4<br /> |Parts of human body; clothing<br /> |-<br /> !Class 5<br /> |Abstract nouns; traditional imaginary beings<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There are no morphological indications related to noun classes in the nominative singular. The differences appear along the inflection of nouns.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Number ===<br /> Nouns in Dahur have a singular and a plural. The plural ending varies according to noun class and to case. There is also a dual number, which is valid only for nouns normally occurring in pairs. Mass or collective nouns have a singulative inflection, but this is not very systematically indicated.<br /> <br /> <br /> So, for example:<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> !Dual<br /> !Singulative<br /> |-<br /> |class 1<br /> |'''grats'''<br /> &quot;boy&quot;<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> &quot;boys&quot;<br /> | -<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 2<br /> |'''kɛʃev'''<br /> &quot;hammer&quot;<br /> |'''kɛʃevlin'''<br /> &quot;hammers&quot;<br /> |'''kɛʃevs'''<br /> &quot;pair of hammers&quot; (traditionally used by blacksmiths)<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 3<br /> |'''halajn'''<br /> &quot;water&quot;<br /> |'''halejnn'''<br /> &quot;waters&quot; (i.e. in a flood)<br /> |'''halajns'''<br /> &quot;The Two Waters&quot; (the river Okanuma and the lake Kassanjas)<br /> |'''halajny'''<br /> &quot;a drop of water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |class 4<br /> |'''kanar'''<br /> &quot;eye&quot;<br /> |'''kanarni'''<br /> &quot;many eyes&quot; (mostly figuratively)<br /> |'''kanaris'''<br /> &quot;(two/both) eyes&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 4<br /> |'''kʃalim'''<br /> &quot;hair&quot;<br /> |'''kʃalimni'''<br /> &quot;(types of) hair&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |'''kʃalimy'''<br /> &quot;a (single) hair&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |class 5<br /> |'''astrønɛl'''<br /> &quot;idea&quot;<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> &quot;ideas&quot;<br /> |'''astrønɛls'''<br /> &quot;a couple ideas&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The plural in classes 1, 2 and 5 is usually regular, obtained with the respective suffixes ('''-en''', '''-lin''', '''-jan'''). <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 1<br /> |'''katlaj'''<br /> &quot;girlfriend&quot;<br /> |'''katlajen'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''dukʃatr'''<br /> &quot;boss&quot;<br /> |'''dukʃatren'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''egastɛv'''<br /> &quot;farmer&quot;<br /> |'''egastɛven'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 2<br /> |'''takoj'''<br /> &quot;pin&quot;<br /> |'''takojlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''uhpsan'''<br /> &quot;paper&quot;<br /> |'''uhpsanlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''dasutr'''<br /> &quot;document, file&quot;<br /> |'''dasutrlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 5<br /> |'''pɛktegal'''<br /> &quot;angel&quot;<br /> |'''pɛktegaljan'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ostrøndɛl'''<br /> &quot;interruption&quot;<br /> |'''ostrøndɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''piktaraʃ'''<br /> &quot;problem&quot;<br /> |'''piktaraʃjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In classes 3 and 4, besides the suffixes ('''-n''', '''-ni'''), most nouns suffer some sort of mutation, usually affecting only one vowel but non uncommonly consisting of more significative changes.<br /> <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 3<br /> |'''pakpaki'''<br /> &quot;louse&quot;<br /> |'''pakpɛkin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''pahalis'''<br /> &quot;leaf&quot;<br /> |'''pahaljen'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''tʃeptal'''<br /> &quot;cloud&quot;<br /> |'''tʃapatlin''', '''tʃaptlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 4<br /> |'''kraus'''<br /> &quot;ear&quot;<br /> |'''krojsni'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ɛmblew'''<br /> &quot;hat&quot;<br /> |'''ɛmbalni'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''krikter'''<br /> &quot;helmet&quot;<br /> |'''kruktni'''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Case ===<br /> Dahur nouns inflect for the following cases: <br /> * '''nominative''' (subject, predicative)<br /> * '''accusative''' (direct object, motion towards)<br /> * '''dative''' (indirect object)<br /> * '''genitive''' (possession, partitive, origin)<br /> * '''locative''' (location, placement)<br /> * '''instrumental''' (instrument, means, company)<br /> * '''ablative''' (adverbial)<br /> * '''ergative''' (agent of the passive voice)<br /> <br /> All cases except the nominative and the ergative can be used with prepositions.<br /> <br /> Certain nouns, mostly nouns indicating human beings, also show a vocative form, mostly formed with the ending '''-e''', but usually irregular. <br /> <br /> Certain nouns, for example nouns indicating mass or food, show a partitive case, usually formed with the ending '''-(i)t'''. <br /> <br /> <br /> === Inflection ===<br /> <br /> Noun declension in Dahur is quite regular, in terms of case and the less usual numbers, viz. the dual and the singulative.<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 1<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 2<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 3<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 4<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 5<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''-'''<br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-en'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-lin'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-n'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-is'''<br /> |'''-ni'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-an'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-lajn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-an'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-jas'''<br /> |'''-nja'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-un'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-lun'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-wan'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-ujs'''<br /> |'''-nu'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-ujn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''-ak'''<br /> |'''-ask'''<br /> |'''-ken'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ik'''<br /> |'''-isk'''<br /> |'''-link'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-aʃ'''<br /> |'''-ʃas'''<br /> |'''-ʃan'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-iʃ'''<br /> |'''-siʃ'''<br /> |'''-niʃ'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ik'''<br /> |'''-isk'''<br /> |'''-jank'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-emb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-limb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-emb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-bis'''<br /> |'''-nibb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-jamb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-nom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-lom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-nom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-joms'''<br /> |'''-njom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-njom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-nɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-lɛnv''', '''-lɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-nɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-jɛfs'''<br /> |'''-njɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-njɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-løtr'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-sjøtr'''<br /> |'''-trøjn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøjn'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> &lt;!---<br /> * The '''nominative''' case is the basic form of nouns.<br /> * The '''accusative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-a'''. <br /> * The '''dative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-si'''.<br /> * The '''genitive''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ak''' for animate intelligent beings, '''-iʃ''' for animals, '''-is''' for concrete objects and '''-ɔn''' for abstract things.<br /> * The '''locative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-us'''. With animate nouns, the locative can mean &quot;on&quot;, or &quot;with&quot;, as in &quot;carrying with&quot;. <br /> * The '''instrumental''' case is indicated by the enging '''-em''' for animate intelligent beings, '''-om''' for animals, '''-um''' for things.<br /> * The '''ergative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-øtr'''. <br /> * The '''ablative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ɛv'''. <br /> --&gt;<br /> <br /> When an ending starting with a vowel is applied, a final '''-i''' becomes '''-j-''', and a final '''-u''' becomes '''-w-'''; otherwise, an '''-h-''' is added. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''dula''' &quot;babysitter&quot;, '''dulahen''' &quot;babysitters&quot;<br /> * '''agdari''' &quot;prisoner&quot;, '''agdarjen''' &quot;prisoners&quot;<br /> * '''pakpaki''' &quot;louse&quot;, '''pakpakja''' &quot;louse (accus.)&quot;, '''pakpakjaʃ''' &quot;of a louse&quot;, '''pakpakjom''' &quot;by a louse&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> In the following tables, you have some examples of nouns of the various classes, fully inflected for number and case.<br /> <br /> * Class 1: '''grats''' &quot;boy&quot; <br /> * Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' &quot;hammer&quot; <br /> * Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' &quot;cloud&quot; <br /> * Class 4: '''kraus''' &quot;ear&quot; <br /> * Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' &quot;idea&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 1: '''grats''' &quot;boy&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''grats'''<br /> |'''gratss'''<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''gratsa'''<br /> |'''gratsas'''<br /> |'''gratsan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''gratsu'''<br /> |'''gratsus'''<br /> |'''gratsun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''gratsak'''<br /> |'''gratsask'''<br /> |'''gratsken'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''gratsebb'''<br /> |'''gratseps'''<br /> |'''gratsemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''gratsom'''<br /> |'''gratsoms'''<br /> |'''gratsnom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''gratsɛv'''<br /> |'''gratsɛfs'''<br /> |'''gratsnɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''gratsøtr'''<br /> |'''gratssøtr'''<br /> |'''gratsetrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Vocative<br /> |'''gratse'''<br /> |'''gratses'''<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' &quot;hammer&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''kɛʃev'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevs'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlin'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''kɛʃeva'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevas'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlajn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''kɛʃevu'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevus'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''kɛʃevik'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevisk'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlink'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''kɛʃevebb'''<br /> |'''kɛʃeveps'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlimb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''kɛʃevom'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevoms'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''kɛʃevɛv'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevɛfs'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlɛnv''', '''kɛʃevlɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''kɛʃevøtr'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevsøtr'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevløtr'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' &quot;cloud&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''tʃeptal'''<br /> |'''tʃeptals'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlin'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''tʃeptala'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalas'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlijan''', '''tʃaptljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''tʃeptalu'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalus'''<br /> |'''tʃaptliwan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''tʃeptalaʃ'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalʃas'''<br /> |'''tʃaptliʃan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''tʃeptalebb'''<br /> |'''tʃeptaleps'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlijemb''', '''tʃaptljemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''tʃeptalom'''<br /> |'''tʃeptaloms'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlinom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''tʃeptalɛv'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalɛfs'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlinɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''tʃeptaløtr'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalsøtr'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlitrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''tʃeptalt'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalts'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlint'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 4: '''kraus''' &quot;ear&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''kraus'''<br /> |'''krausis'''<br /> |'''krojsni'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''krausa'''<br /> |'''krausjas'''<br /> |'''krojsnja'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''krausu'''<br /> |'''krausujs'''<br /> |'''krojsnu'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''krausiʃ'''<br /> |'''kraussiʃ'''<br /> |'''krojsniʃ'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''krausebb'''<br /> |'''krauseps'''<br /> |'''krojsnibb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''krausom'''<br /> |'''krausoms'''<br /> |'''krojsnjom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''krausɛv'''<br /> |'''krausɛfs'''<br /> |'''krojsnjɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''krausøtr'''<br /> |'''krausjøtr'''<br /> |'''krojstrøjn'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' &quot;idea&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''astrønɛls'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''astrønɛla'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlas'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''astrønɛlu'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlus'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlujn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''astrønɛlik'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlisk'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljank'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''astrønɛlebb'''<br /> |'''astrønɛleps'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljamb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''astrønɛlom'''<br /> |'''astrønɛloms'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlnjom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''astrønɛlɛv'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlɛfs'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlnjɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''astrønɛløtr'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlsøtr'''<br /> |'''astrønɛltrøjn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''astrønɛlt'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlts'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljant'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Articles ==<br /> <br /> === Definite Article === <br /> <br /> The definite article inflects for case and number, and is quite irregular. <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> !Singulative <br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''tru'''<br /> |'''gas'''<br /> |'''tann'''<br /> |'''try'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''na'''<br /> |'''ga'''<br /> |'''ta'''<br /> |'''ny'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''kʃu'''<br /> |'''gu'''<br /> |'''tun'''<br /> |'''kʃu'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''kis'''<br /> |'''gak'''<br /> |'''tak'''<br /> |'''kis'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''debb'''<br /> |'''gebb'''<br /> |'''tebb'''<br /> |'''debb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''trom'''<br /> |'''gom'''<br /> |'''tom'''<br /> |'''trom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative <br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |'''gɛv'''<br /> |'''tɛv'''<br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''trø'''<br /> |'''gøtr'''<br /> |'''tøtr'''<br /> |'''trø'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Indefinite Article === <br /> <br /> Dahur has no proper indefinite article. <br /> <br /> If it's really necessary to mark a noun phrase as indefinite, an indefinite pronoun may be used. The most common is '''lum''' (invariable), meaning &quot;some&quot;, &quot;a certain&quot; &amp;c.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Prepositions ==<br /> <br /> Prepositions in Dahur require the noun in one of the following cases: <br /> <br /> * accusative<br /> * dative<br /> * genitive<br /> * ablative<br /> * instrumental<br /> * locative<br /> <br /> The nominative and the ergative are '''never''' used with prepositions. <br /> <br /> In the table below you have the most common Dahur prepositions: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Preposition<br /> !Case<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''dun'''<br /> |''locative'', ''accusative of movement''<br /> |inside<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''yin'''<br /> |''dative''<br /> |for, in behalf of<br /> |-<br /> |''accusative''<br /> |towards<br /> |-<br /> |'''ari''', '''ar'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |from, out of<br /> |-<br /> |'''yuʃ'''<br /> |''genitive'', ''ablative''<br /> |because of<br /> |-<br /> |'''vøj'''<br /> |''locative''<br /> |through<br /> |-<br /> |'''syn'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |near<br /> |-<br /> |'''kʃe'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |since, ago<br /> |-<br /> |'''pɛn'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |besides, next to<br /> |-<br /> |'''lujg'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |in front of<br /> |-<br /> |'''mœh'''<br /> |''ablative''<br /> |without<br /> |-<br /> |'''sto'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |on, on top of<br /> |-<br /> |'''krɔj'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |under<br /> |-<br /> |'''tjɛs'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |before (time)<br /> |-<br /> |'''gwaj'''<br /> |''accusative''<br /> |after (time)<br /> |-<br /> |'''fyj'''<br /> |''ablative''<br /> |during<br /> |-<br /> |'''vlen'''<br /> |''instrumental''<br /> |despite<br /> |-<br /> |'''uhk'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |except<br /> |-<br /> |'''uzd'''<br /> |''dative''<br /> |instead of<br /> |-<br /> |'''blas'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |behind<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> * '''yin na hedana''' &quot;towards the house&quot;<br /> * '''dun na hedana''' &quot;into the house&quot;<br /> * '''ar kis hedanik''' &quot;from the house&quot;, &quot;out of the house&quot;<br /> * '''syn debb hedanebb''' &quot;near the house&quot;<br /> * '''syn na hedana''' &quot;going near of the house&quot;<br /> * '''pɛn debb hedanebb''' &quot;besides the house&quot;, &quot;next to the house&quot;<br /> * '''pɛn na hedana''' &quot;going next to the house&quot;<br /> * '''lujg debb hedanebb''' &quot;in front to the house&quot;<br /> * '''lujg na hedana''' &quot;going to the front of the house&quot;<br /> * '''mœh dɛv hedanɛv''' &quot;without the house&quot;<br /> * '''sto debb hedanebb''' &quot;on top of the house&quot;<br /> * '''sto na hedana''' &quot;going onto (the top of) the house&quot;<br /> * '''krɔj debb hedanebb''' &quot;under the house&quot;<br /> * '''uzd kʃu hedanu''' &quot;instead of the house&quot;<br /> * '''blas debb hedanebb''' &quot;behind the house&quot;<br /> * '''blas na hedana''' &quot;going behind the house&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> == Adjectives ==<br /> <br /> === Attributive Adjectives ===<br /> Attributive adjectives in Dahur are invariable and come before the noun. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''fɛren grats''' &quot;a smart boy&quot;<br /> * '''duʃ halajn''' &quot;clean water&quot;<br /> * '''selak kanaris''' &quot;pretty eyes&quot;<br /> <br /> A few attributes may be expressed by affixes to the noun, instead of the separate adjective. The most common ones are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar'''<br /> |'''-os''' <br /> (usually deleting the last vowel of the original noun)<br /> |&quot;big&quot;, &quot;large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr'''<br /> |'''-in-''' <br /> (before the last vowel of the or. noun)<br /> |&quot;small&quot;, &quot;little&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani'''<br /> |'''-(t)ta-''' <br /> (before the second vowel of the or. noun)<br /> |&quot;good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''<br /> |'''-aar'''<br /> |&quot;bad&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !With Adjective<br /> !With Affixed Form<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''piktarʃos''' <br /> |&quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''piktarinaʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a little problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''attastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a good idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlaar'''<br /> |&quot;a bad idea&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Certain adjectives have a special, shortened form, which is prefixed to nouns when used attributively. <br /> The most common ones are: <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar'''<br /> |'''nah-''' <br /> |&quot;big&quot;, &quot;large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr'''<br /> |'''ki-''' <br /> (doubles the initial consonant of the noun)<br /> |&quot;small&quot;, &quot;little&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani'''<br /> |'''suw-''' ('''suww-''' before vowels)<br /> |&quot;good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''<br /> |'''dag-''' ('''dagg-''' before vowels)<br /> |&quot;bad&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin'''<br /> |'''sin-''' <br /> |&quot;new&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ'''<br /> |'''dom-''' <br /> |&quot;old&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''mahhalis'''<br /> |'''mah-''' <br /> |&quot;ancient&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''', '''makʃølin'''<br /> |'''møkʃ-''' <br /> |&quot;important&quot;, &quot;great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan'''<br /> |'''tos-''', '''tan-''' <br /> |&quot;beautiful&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki'''<br /> |'''killi-''' <br /> |&quot;false&quot;, &quot;fake&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !With Adjective<br /> !With Prefix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''nahpiktaraʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''kippiktaraʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a small problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''suwwastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a good idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''daggastrønɛl'''<br /> |&quot;a bad idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin dasutr'''<br /> |'''sindasutr''' <br /> |&quot;a new document&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ hedan'''<br /> |'''domhedan''' <br /> |&quot;an old house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''mahhalis kataʃtevan'''<br /> |'''mahkataʃtevan''' <br /> |&quot;an ancient civilization&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen dasutr''', '''makʃølin dasutr'''<br /> |'''møkʃdasutr''' <br /> |&quot;an important document&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen astrønɛl''', '''makʃølin astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''møkʃastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a great idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan dummal'''<br /> |'''tosdummal''', '''tandummal''' <br /> |&quot;a beautiful song&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki bɔrakʃ'''<br /> |'''killibɔrakʃ''' <br /> |&quot;false news&quot;, &quot;fake news&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Predicative Adjectives ===<br /> <br /> An adjective used in predicative function is invariable. Only the full forms of adjectives can be used predicatively. <br /> <br /> Usually a linking verb is employed. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru astrønɛl laje makʃølen.''' || The idea is great.<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru grats alanje befitra.''' || The boy is tired.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is also the possibility of turning adjectives into verbs. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru astrønɛl makʃølnaje.''' || The idea is great.<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru grats abefitranje.''' || The boy is tired.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The most common way to make an adjective into a verb, implying the idea of &quot;be&quot;, is the suffix '''-a-''', which may cause some change in the last syllable of the original adjective. If the adjective already ends in '''-a''', there is no change. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''' <br /> &quot;great&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølna''' <br /> &quot;be great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;be tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani''' <br /> &quot;good&quot;<br /> |'''suwanja''' <br /> &quot;be good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''' <br /> &quot;bad&quot;<br /> |'''daggusa''' <br /> &quot;be bad&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin''' <br /> &quot;new&quot;<br /> |'''sulna''', '''sinna''' <br /> &quot;be new&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ''' <br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dɛtra''' <br /> &quot;be old&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan''' <br /> &quot;beautiful&quot;<br /> |'''tossana''', '''tosna''' <br /> &quot;be beautiful&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''trapter''' <br /> &quot;unique&quot;<br /> |'''traptra''' <br /> &quot;be unique&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃɔtma''' <br /> &quot;sure&quot;, &quot;certain&quot;<br /> |'''ʃɔtama''' <br /> &quot;be sure&quot;, &quot;be certain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kanikli''' <br /> &quot;appropriate&quot;<br /> |'''kankilja''' <br /> &quot;be appropriate&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tubbar''' <br /> &quot;white&quot;<br /> |'''tubabra''' <br /> &quot;be white&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kindis''' <br /> &quot;clear&quot;<br /> |'''kinitsa''' <br /> &quot;be clear&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''turu'''<br /> &quot;wrong&quot;<br /> |'''turva''', '''terva'''<br /> &quot;be wrong&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''divlaas'''<br /> |&quot;sick, ill&quot;<br /> |'''dulaasa'''<br /> |&quot;be sick, be ill&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Another suffix is '''-(a)st(a)-''', meaning &quot;to get&quot; or &quot;to become&quot;. The first optional '''-a-''' appears when necessary, to avoid unsuitable consonant clusters, while the final '''-a''' is only used in the infinitive form of the verb - i.e., without any suffixes. There are some irregular formations.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''' <br /> &quot;great&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølnasta''' <br /> &quot;become great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitrasta''' <br /> &quot;get tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar''' <br /> &quot;big, large&quot;<br /> |'''nahasta''', '''narasta''' <br /> &quot;get big&quot;, &quot;increase&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr''' <br /> &quot;little, small&quot;<br /> |'''kitrasta''', '''katrasta''', '''kirrasta''' <br /> &quot;get smaller&quot;, &quot;decrease&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani''' <br /> &quot;good&quot;<br /> |'''suwanasta'''<br /> &quot;become good&quot;<br /> <br /> '''suwasta''', '''sawasta''', '''suwnasta''' <br /> <br /> &quot;get better&quot;, &quot;improve&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''' , '''daggussa'''<br /> &quot;bad&quot;<br /> |'''daggusasta''', '''daggussasta''' <br /> &quot;become bad&quot;<br /> <br /> '''daggasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get worse&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ'''<br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛsta'''<br /> &quot;become old&quot;<br /> <br /> '''dotrasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get older&quot;, &quot;to age&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan'''<br /> &quot;beautiful<br /> |'''tossanasta'''<br /> &quot;become beautiful&quot;<br /> <br /> '''tossasta''', '''tosnasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get prettier&quot;, &quot;beautify&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki'''<br /> &quot;false&quot;, &quot;fake&quot;<br /> |'''ablikasta'''<br /> &quot;become invalid&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''divlaas'''<br /> |&quot;sick, ill&quot;<br /> |'''dulaasta'''<br /> |&quot;be sick, be ill&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> A few other suffixes perform similar tasks, with more specific meanings. These are usually quite regular. The most productive among these suffixes are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-we'''<br /> |&quot;to remain&quot;, &quot;still be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-kas'''<br /> |&quot;to seem&quot;, &quot;to appear&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-ʃyn'''<br /> |&quot;to pretend to be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-dobb(a)-'''<br /> |&quot;to cease to be&quot;, &quot;to be no longer&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-guj'''<br /> |&quot;to be a little bit&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''nøssar''' <br /> &quot;calm&quot;<br /> |'''nøssarwe''' &quot;remain calm&quot;, &quot;keep calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarkaʃ''' &quot;seem/appear calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarʃyn''' &quot;pretend to be calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssardobba''' &quot;cease to be calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarguj''' &quot;be a little calm&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ''' <br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛkaʃ''' &quot;seem/appear old&quot;<br /> <br /> '''dotrɛguj''' &quot;be a little old&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Comparative === <br /> The comparative of superiority of an adjective can be made by adding the suffix '''-ju''' to the stem. This suffix doubles a preceeding consonant, or becomes '''-jju''' when preceeded by a vowel. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''fɛrennju grats''' &quot;a smarter boy&quot;<br /> * '''duʃʃju halajn''' &quot;cleaner water&quot;<br /> * '''selakkju kanaris''' &quot;prettier eyes&quot;<br /> * '''naharrju piktaraʃ''' &quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> * '''kittrju piktaraʃ''' &quot;a little problem&quot; <br /> * '''suwanijju astrønɛl''' &quot;a better idea&quot;<br /> * '''daggussju''' / '''daggussajju astrønɛl''' &quot;a worse idea&quot;<br /> * '''dotrɛjju pɛten''' &quot;an older book&quot;<br /> <br /> Comparative adjectives may be turned into verbs regularly with the suffix '''-a''', which then becomes '''-wa'''. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølennju''' <br /> &quot;greater&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølennjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be greater&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitrajju''' <br /> &quot;more tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitrajjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be more tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwanijju''' <br /> &quot;better&quot;<br /> |'''suwanijjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be better&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulinnju''' <br /> &quot;newer&quot;<br /> |'''sulinnjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be newer&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛjju''' <br /> &quot;older&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛjjuwa'''<br /> &quot;be older&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossannju''' <br /> &quot;more beautiful&quot;<br /> |'''tossannjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be more beautiful&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The complement of a comparison, corresponding to the conjunction &quot;than&quot;, is placed in the ablative case. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''Nuv pɛten laej suwanijju tuhafɛv.''' &quot;This book is better than that one&quot;<br /> * '''Nuv pɛten suwanijjuwaej tuhafɛv.''' (idem)<br /> * '''Tru dukʃatr laej dotrɛjju dɛv egastɛvɛv.''' &quot;The boss is older than the farmer&quot;<br /> * '''Tru dukʃatr dotrɛjjuwaej dɛv egastɛvɛv.''' (idem)<br /> <br /> == Numerals ==<br /> The basic cardinal numbers are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |0 || '''kal''', '''kahtral'''<br /> |-<br /> |1 || '''mihen'''<br /> |-<br /> |2 || '''dahas'''<br /> |-<br /> |3 || '''travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |4 || '''gazen'''<br /> |-<br /> |5 || '''kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |6 || '''pinjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |7 || '''høtak'''<br /> |-<br /> |8 || '''magɛl'''<br /> |-<br /> |9 || '''donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |10 || '''zɛhɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |11 || '''zɛhɛv mihen''', '''zɛvhen'''<br /> |-<br /> |12 || '''zɛhɛv dahas''', '''zɛvdas'''<br /> |-<br /> |13 || '''zɛhɛv travis''', '''zɛvtras'''<br /> |-<br /> |14 || '''zɛhɛv gazen''', '''zɛvzen'''<br /> |-<br /> |15 || '''zɛhɛv kɛʃav''', '''zɛvkʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |16 || '''zɛhɛv pinjan''', '''zɛvpan'''<br /> |-<br /> |17 || '''zɛhɛv høtak''','''zɛvhøk'''<br /> |-<br /> |18 || '''zɛhɛv magɛl''', '''zɛvmal'''<br /> |-<br /> |19 || '''zɛhɛv donwaʒ''', '''zɛvdaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |20 || '''dahassɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |30 || '''travissɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |40 || '''gazennɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |50 || '''kɛʃavvɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |60 || '''pinjannɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |70 || '''høtakkɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |80 || '''magɛllɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |90 || '''donwaʒʒɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |100 || '''lakin'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,000 || '''tatrimi'''<br /> |-<br /> |10,000 || '''zɛhɛv tatrimi'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Numbers are composed by joining the base units above, from bigger to lower. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |23 || '''dahassɛv travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |45 || '''gazennɛv kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |67 || '''pinjannɛv høtak'''<br /> |-<br /> |89 || '''magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |123 || '''lakin dahassɛv travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |456 || '''gazen lakin kɛʃavvɛv pinjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |789 || '''høtak lakin magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,234 || '''tatrimi dahas lakin travissɛv gazen'''<br /> |-<br /> |5,678 || '''kɛʃav tatrimi pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl'''<br /> |-<br /> |12,345 || '''zɛvdas tatrimi travis lakin gazennɛv kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |678,910 || '''pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl tatrimi donwaʒ lakin zɛhɛv'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Ordinal numbers are created with the suffix '''-iki'''. Ex.: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |1st || '''miheniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |2nd || '''dahasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |3rd || '''travisiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |4th || '''gazeniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |5th || '''kɛʃaviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |6th || '''pinjaniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |7th || '''høtakiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |8th || '''magɛliki'''<br /> |-<br /> |9th || '''donwaʒiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |10th || '''zɛhɛviki''', '''zɛhviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |11th || '''zɛvheniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |12th || '''zɛvdasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |13th || '''zɛvtrasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |14th || '''zɛvzeniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |15th || '''zɛvkʃaviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |16th || '''zɛvpaniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |17th || '''zɛvhøkiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |18th || '''zɛvmaliki'''<br /> |-<br /> |19th || '''zɛvdaʒiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |20th || '''dahassɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |30th || '''travissɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |40th || '''gazennɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |50th || '''kɛʃavvɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |60th || '''pinjannɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |70th || '''høtakkɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |80th || '''magɛllɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |90th || '''donwaʒʒɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |100th || '''lakiniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,000th || '''tatrimiiki'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Pronouns ==<br /> <br /> === Personal Pronouns ===<br /> Personal Pronouns in Dahur indicate person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and number (singular, dual, plural).<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|1st Person<br /> |'''dɛ''' &quot;I&quot; , &quot;me&quot;<br /> |'''ʃes''' &quot;we both&quot;<br /> |'''ʃɛn''' &quot;we&quot;, &quot;us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''dɛ'''<br /> |'''ʃes'''<br /> |'''ʃɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''dɛa''', '''da'''<br /> |'''ʃeas''', '''ʃas'''<br /> |'''ʃan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''dɛw''', '''du'''<br /> |'''ʃeus''', '''ʃews''', '''ʃus'''<br /> |'''ʃɛun''', '''ʃɛwn''', '''ʃun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''dɛk'''<br /> |'''ʃesk'''<br /> |'''ʃɛkɛn''', '''ʃkɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''dɛbb'''<br /> |'''ʃeps'''<br /> |'''ʃɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''dɛm'''<br /> |'''ʃems'''<br /> |'''ʃɛom''', '''ʃom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |'''ʃɛfs'''<br /> |'''ʃɛɛv''', '''ʃɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''dɛjøtr''', '''dɛtr'''<br /> |'''ʃesøtr'''<br /> |'''ʃɛtrøn''', '''ʃtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''dɛt'''<br /> |'''ʃets'''<br /> |'''ʃɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|2nd Person<br /> |'''hej''' &quot;you (sg.), thou&quot;<br /> |'''kwes''' &quot;you both&quot;<br /> |'''kwɛn''' &quot;you (pl.)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''hej'''<br /> |'''kwes'''<br /> |'''kwɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''heja''', '''ja'''<br /> |'''kweas''', '''kwas'''<br /> |'''kwɛan''', '''kwan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''heju''', '''ju'''<br /> |'''kweus'''<br /> |'''kwɛun''', '''kun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''heik''', '''hejik'''<br /> |'''kwesk'''<br /> |'''kwɛnek''', '''kwɛnk'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''heibb''', '''hibb'''<br /> |'''kweps'''<br /> |'''kwɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''heim''', '''him'''<br /> |'''kwems'''<br /> |'''kwɛom''', '''kwɛm''', '''kwom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''hejɛv''', '''jɛv'''<br /> |'''kwɛfs'''<br /> |'''kwɛɛv''', '''kwɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''hejøtr''', '''hjøtr'''<br /> |'''kwesøtr'''<br /> |'''kwɛtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Vocative<br /> |'''heje'''<br /> |'''kwejes'''<br /> |'''kwɛjɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''hɛt'''<br /> |'''kwets'''<br /> |'''kwɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|3rd Person<br /> |'''nar''' &quot;he&quot;, &quot;she&quot;, &quot;it&quot;<br /> |'''ras''' &quot;they both&quot;<br /> |'''ren''' &quot;they&quot;, &quot;them&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''nar'''<br /> |'''ras'''<br /> |'''rɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''nara''', '''ra'''<br /> |'''ras'''<br /> |'''rɛan''', '''ran'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''naru''', '''ru'''<br /> |'''raus''', '''raws''', '''rus'''<br /> |'''rɛun''', '''rɛwn''', '''run'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''narɛk''', '''rɛk'''<br /> |'''resk'''<br /> |'''rɛkɛn''', '''ɛrken'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''narebb''', '''rebb'''<br /> |'''reps'''<br /> |'''rɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''narom''', '''rom'''<br /> |'''rems'''<br /> |'''rɛnom''', '''rom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''narɛv''', '''rɛv'''<br /> |'''rɛfs'''<br /> |'''rɛɛv''', '''rɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''narøtr''', '''røtr'''<br /> |'''resøtr'''<br /> |'''rɛtrøn''', '''ɛrtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''rɛt'''<br /> |'''rets'''<br /> |'''rɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The '''genitive''' forms work as possessive pronouns. In that case, the definite article is optional. Ex.: <br /> * '''tru dɛk astrønɛl''', '''dɛk astrønɛl''' &quot;my idea&quot;<br /> * '''na heik kʃalima''', '''heik kʃalima''' &quot;your hair (accus.)&quot;<br /> * '''trom narɛk kɛʃevom''', '''narɛk kɛʃevom''' &quot;with his/her hammer (instr.)&quot;<br /> * '''tu dɛk menirun''', '''dɛk menirun''' &quot;to my children (dat.)&quot;<br /> <br /> Object pronouns usually come before the verb. The shorter, unstressed version is preferred. Ex.: <br /> * '''Ja angenus.''' &quot;I can see you (sing.).&quot;<br /> * '''Kwas angenus.''' &quot;I can see you two.&quot;<br /> * '''Kwan angenus.''' &quot;I can see you (pl.).&quot;<br /> * '''Ra angenus.''' &quot;I can see it/him/her.&quot;<br /> * '''Ras angenus.''' &quot;I can see them both.&quot;<br /> * '''Ran angenus.''' &quot;I can see them.&quot;<br /> * '''Da angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see me.&quot;<br /> * '''ʃas angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see us both.&quot;<br /> * '''ʃan angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see us.&quot;<br /> <br /> An object pronoun may also appear after the verb. In that case, the preference is for the longer, stressed versions. Ex.:<br /> * '''Angenus ja/heja.''' &quot;I can see you (sing.).&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus kweas/kwas.''' &quot;I can see you two.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus kwɛan/kwan.''' &quot;I can see you (pl.).&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus nara/ra.''' &quot;I can see it/him/her.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus ras.''' &quot;I can see them both.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus rɛan/ran.''' &quot;I can see them.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej dɛa/da.''' &quot;He/she can see me.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej ʃeas/ʃas.''' &quot;He/she can see us both.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej ʃan.''' &quot;He/she can see us.&quot;<br /> <br /> The most common case for a verb complement is the accusative. However, verbs may require different cases. Ex.: <br /> * '''Kun dagsuttoj!''' &quot;It will harm you!&quot; / &quot;It will be harmful to you!&quot; ('''dagusta''' &quot;harm, be harmful&quot; + dat.)<br /> * '''Ja/Ju darʃinɔn.''' &quot;We trust you.&quot; ('''darʃin''' &quot;trust&quot; + acc./dat.)<br /> * '''Poglattindsa narɛv/rɛv''' &quot;I didn't use it.&quot; ('''poglar''' &quot;use&quot; + abl.)<br /> * '''Ra twiʃnettmis.''' &quot;You drank it (all).&quot; / '''Rɛt twiʃnettmis.''' &quot;You drank (some of) it.&quot; '''twiʃin''' &quot;drink&quot; +acc. (whole), +part. (specific amount)<br /> <br /> === Demonstrative Pronouns ===<br /> The main demonstrative pronouns are: <br /> <br /> * '''nuv''' &quot;this, these&quot;<br /> * '''tuhaf''' &quot;that, those&quot;<br /> <br /> When accompanying a noun, they behave as adjectives and are not inflected. <br /> <br /> When used on their own, they stand as nouns and are inflected according to the class of the intended noun. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''Nuv grats laej fɛrennju nuvɛv.''' &quot;This boy is smarter than this one.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> === Interrogative Pronouns ===<br /> <br /> === Indefinite Pronouns ===<br /> <br /> === Relative Pronoun ===<br /> The main relative pronoun in Dahur is '''jao''', as shown in the following table. <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''jao'''<br /> |'''jes'''<br /> |'''jen'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''jaa''', '''ja'''<br /> |'''jeas''', '''jas'''<br /> |'''jaan''', '''jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''jau''', '''jaw'''<br /> |'''jeus''', '''jews'''<br /> |'''jeun''', '''jewn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''jak'''<br /> |'''jesk'''<br /> |'''jenk'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''jaebb'''<br /> |'''jaeps'''<br /> |'''jaemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''jaom'''<br /> |'''jaoms'''<br /> |'''jaom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''jaɛv'''<br /> |'''jaɛfs'''<br /> |'''janɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''jaøtr'''<br /> |'''jasøtr'''<br /> |'''jatrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> | - <br /> |'''jets'''<br /> |'''jent'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The pronoun agrees in number with the antecedent, but its case is determined by its function in the subordinate clause. Ex.:<br /> * '''tru grats jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;the boy (nom.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''na gratsa jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;the boy (accus.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''kʃu gratsu jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;to the boy (dat.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''kis gratsak jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;of the boy (gen.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''trø gratsøtr jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;by the boy (erg.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''tann gratsen jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;the boys (nom.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''ta gratsan jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;the boys (accus.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tun gratsun jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;to the boys (dat.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tak gratsken jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr gratsetrøn jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tru grats jaa kahettsa''' &quot;the boy (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''na gratsa jaa kahettsa''' &quot;the boy (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''kʃu gratsu jaa kahettsa''' &quot;to the boy (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''kis gratsak jaa kahettsa''' &quot;of the boy (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''trø gratsøtr jaa kahettsa''' &quot;by the boy (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tann gratsen jaan kahettsa''' &quot;the boys (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''ta gratsan jaan kahettsa''' &quot;the boys (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tun gratsun jaan kahettsa''' &quot;to the boys (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tak gratsken jaan kahettsa''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr gratsetrøn jaan kahettsa''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> <br /> Besides this pronoun, relative clauses may also be formed with participles. <br /> <br /> Ex.:<br /> <br /> * '''tru ateʃfanur grats''' &quot;the boy (nom.) who is running away&quot; <br /> * '''na ateʃfanur gratsa''' &quot;the boy (accus.) who is running away&quot; <br /> * '''tak ateʃfanur gratsken''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) who are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tru dɛtr kahettek grats''', '''tru grats dɛtr kahettek''' &quot;the boy (nom.) whom I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr dɛtr kahettek gratsetrøn''', '''tøtr gratsetrøn dɛtr kahettek''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) whom I saw&quot;<br /> <br /> == Verbs ==<br /> <br /> === Finite Forms ===<br /> <br /> Verbs in Dahur have different stems indicating aspect. The conjugation uses different sets of endings to indicate tense or time. <br /> <br /> The basic verb stems are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Aspect<br /> !Meaning<br /> !Form<br /> |-<br /> |Generic<br /> |''verbal idea without a specific context, time or aspect''<br /> |the basic stem of the verb<br /> |-<br /> |Cursive (Progressive; Continuous)<br /> |''action ongoing at the moment of reference<br /> |prefix '''a-''' and suffix '''-(a)n-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Aorist<br /> |''a complete or punctual action''<br /> |suffix '''-(e)tt-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Perfect<br /> |''the result of an action that happened before the reference time''<br /> |suffix '''-(l)l(a)-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Unrealised (Future)<br /> |''action as not realised in relation to the reference time''<br /> |prefix '''u-''' and suffix '''-(u)ʃ-''' <br /> |-<br /> |Conditional<br /> |''irrealis, usually an action depending on another''<br /> |prefix '''i-''' (doubling the initial consonant) and suffix '''-i-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Stem formation is often irregular. <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Generic<br /> !Cursive<br /> !Aorist<br /> !Perfect<br /> !Unrealised<br /> !Conditional <br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmal-'''<br /> |'''akʃmalan-'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalett-'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalla-'''<br /> |'''ukaʃmaluʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkaʃmali-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''la-'''<br /> |'''alan-'''<br /> |'''latt-'''<br /> |'''lalla-'''<br /> |'''ulauʃ-'''<br /> |'''illai-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''wennin''' &quot;live&quot; <br /> |'''wennin-'''<br /> |'''awann-'''<br /> |'''wennett-'''<br /> |'''wennilla-'''<br /> |'''uwenninʃ-'''<br /> |'''iwennini-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadra-'''<br /> |'''agandran-'''<br /> |'''gadrett-'''<br /> |'''gadralla-'''<br /> |'''ugadruʃ-'''<br /> |'''iggadri-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''tefʃiv''' &quot;flee&quot;<br /> |'''tefʃiv-'''<br /> |'''ateʃfan-'''<br /> |'''tefʃivett-'''<br /> |'''tefʃivla-'''<br /> |'''utefʃivuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittefʃivi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maʃkintɾod''' &quot;represent&quot;<br /> |'''maʃkintɾod-'''<br /> |'''amaʃkintɾon-'''<br /> |'''maʃkintɾott-'''<br /> |'''maʃkintɾolla-'''<br /> |'''umaʃkintɾotʃ-'''<br /> |'''immaʃkintɾodi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kajnaar''' &quot;jump&quot;<br /> |'''kajnaar-'''<br /> |'''akajnaan-'''<br /> |'''kajnerett-'''<br /> |'''kajnaalla-'''<br /> |'''ukajnaaruʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkajnaari-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys''' &quot;take care of&quot;<br /> |'''taldesyys-'''<br /> |'''ataldesyyn-'''<br /> |'''taldesyyst-'''<br /> |'''taldesyyll-'''<br /> |'''utaldesyyʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittaldesyysi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kota-'''<br /> |'''ankon-'''<br /> |'''kotatt-'''<br /> |'''kekolla-'''<br /> |'''ukotuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkoti-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussi-'''<br /> |'''ahsejn-'''<br /> |'''hust-'''<br /> |'''huzilla-'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ihusseji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''ken-''', '''kena-'''<br /> |'''angen-'''<br /> |'''kahett-'''<br /> |'''kenalla-''', '''kralla-'''<br /> |'''ukunuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkeni-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''mend''' &quot;become&quot;<br /> |'''mend-'''<br /> |'''amdan-'''<br /> |'''menett-'''<br /> |'''mendla-'''<br /> |'''umenduʃ-'''<br /> |'''immendi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustaj-''', '''ustaji-'''<br /> |'''anstajn-''', '''anstajin-'''<br /> |'''ustatt-''', '''ustitt-'''<br /> |'''ustalla-''', '''ustilla-'''<br /> |'''ustajuʃ-'''<br /> |'''istaji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''maj-'''<br /> |'''amann-'''<br /> |'''menett-'''<br /> |'''mjalla-'''<br /> |'''umujuʃ-'''<br /> |'''immaji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trak-'''<br /> |'''atrakan-'''<br /> |'''tetrakett-'''<br /> |'''ketralla-'''<br /> |'''utrakʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittraggi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''pakt''' &quot;understand&quot;<br /> |'''pakt-'''<br /> |'''ampakn-'''<br /> |'''pakett-'''<br /> |'''paktalla-'''<br /> |'''upaktuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ippakti-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''durʃin''' &quot;seem, appear&quot;<br /> |'''durʃin-'''<br /> |'''adurʃan-'''<br /> |'''durʃint-'''<br /> |'''durʃilla-'''<br /> |'''udurʃinʃ-'''<br /> |'''iddurʃini-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka''' &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |'''ʃaka-'''<br /> |'''aʃkan-'''<br /> |'''ʃakkatt-'''<br /> |'''ʃakalla-'''<br /> |'''uʃakkuʃ-'''<br /> |'''iʃakki-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kʃa''' [passive voice auxiliary]<br /> |'''kʃa-'''<br /> |'''akʃan-'''<br /> |'''kʃatt-'''<br /> |'''kʃalla-'''<br /> |'''ukʃuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkʃi-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The personal endings are : <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Present<br /> !Past<br /> !Future<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-sa'''<br /> |'''-os'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''-im'''<br /> |'''-mis'''<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''-ej'''<br /> |'''-jes'''<br /> |'''-oj'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''-ɔn'''<br /> |'''-sɔn'''<br /> |'''-on'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''-ib'''<br /> |'''-ips'''<br /> |'''-ob'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''-ɛw'''<br /> |'''-sɛw'''<br /> |'''-ow'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The following combinations of stem + ending set occur: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |Present<br /> |Past<br /> |Future<br /> |-<br /> |Generic<br /> !Simple <br /> Present<br /> !Habitual<br /> Past (&quot;used to&quot;)<br /> !Indefinite<br /> Future<br /> |-<br /> |Cursive<br /> !Present<br /> Continuous<br /> !Past <br /> Continuous<br /> !Future<br /> Progressive<br /> |-<br /> |Aorist<br /> |<br /> !Simple <br /> Past (Aorist)<br /> !Definite Future<br /> (Specific, Punctual)<br /> |-<br /> |Perfect<br /> !Present <br /> Perfect<br /> !Past<br /> Perfect<br /> !Future <br /> Perfect<br /> |-<br /> |Unrealised<br /> !Near <br /> Future<br /> !Unrealised <br /> Past (&quot;would&quot;)<br /> !Future <br /> (Remote) <br /> |-<br /> |Conditional <br /> !Conditional <br /> Present<br /> !Conditional <br /> Past<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> For the imperative, the base form of the verb is used. Optionally, the particle '''a''' can be used before the verb. Ex.: <br /> * '''Kaʃmal!''' / '''A kaʃmal!''' &quot;Take!&quot;<br /> * '''Hussi!''' / '''A hussi!''' &quot;Listen!&quot;<br /> * '''Spa kajnaar!''' / '''A spa kajnaar!''' &quot;Don't jump!&quot;<br /> <br /> While the formation of aspect stems is often irregular, the combination of stem + endings is usually quite regular and predictable. The usual epenthetic phonemes occur, mostly the semivowels ('''j''' and '''w'''), when two vowels come together, but these are more an artifact of speech and aren't usually indicated in writing. Ex.: <br /> * '''kaʃmallaus''', '''kaʃmallawus''' <br /> * '''kaʃmallaim''', '''kaʃmallajim''' <br /> * '''kaʃmallaej''', '''kaʃmallajej''', '''kaʃmallahej'''<br /> * '''kaʃmallaɔn''', '''kaʃmallawɔn''' <br /> * '''iggadriips''', '''iggadrijips'''<br /> * '''iggadrius''', '''iggadrijus'''<br /> * &amp;c.<br /> <br /> ==== Negative ====<br /> <br /> The infix '''-(i)nd-''', placed before the personal endings, makes a verb negative. Ex.: <br /> * '''landus''' &quot;I am not&quot;<br /> * '''lattindsɛw''' &quot;they weren't&quot;<br /> * '''hussindoj''' &quot;he/she won't listen&quot;<br /> * '''ateʃfanindips''' &quot;you weren't running away&quot;<br /> <br /> The emphatic negative particle '''spa''' may be used before the verb, always in the negative form. Ex.: <br /> * '''spa landus''' &quot;I am most certainly not&quot;<br /> * '''spa lattindsɛw''' &quot;they definitely weren't&quot;<br /> * '''spa hussindoj''' &quot;he/she will not listen at all&quot;<br /> * '''spa ateʃfanindips''' &quot;you really weren't running away&quot;<br /> <br /> This particle '''spa''' is also used in a negative command, with the base form of the verb. In that case, it doesn't necessarily have an emphatic meaning. Ex.: <br /> * '''Spa hussi!''' / '''A spa hussi!''' &quot;Don't listen!&quot;<br /> <br /> === Nominal Forms ===<br /> <br /> ==== Infinitive ==== <br /> <br /> The Dahur verb has infinitives for the Generic, Cursive, Aorist, Perfect and Unrealised aspects. They are formed by adding the ending '''-eh''' to the corresponding stem. The prefix '''u-''' of the Unrealised aspect is optional in the infinitive. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Generic<br /> !Cursive<br /> !Aorist<br /> !Perfect<br /> !Unrealised<br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmaleh'''<br /> |'''akʃmalaneh'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaletteh'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaeh'''<br /> |'''ukaʃmaluʃeh''', '''kaʃmaluʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''laeh'''<br /> |'''alaneh'''<br /> |'''latteh'''<br /> |'''lallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)lauʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadraeh'''<br /> |'''agandraneh'''<br /> |'''gadretteh'''<br /> |'''gadrallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)gadruʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kotaeh'''<br /> |'''ankoneh'''<br /> |'''kotatteh'''<br /> |'''kekollaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)kotuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussieh'''<br /> |'''ahsejneh'''<br /> |'''husteh'''<br /> |'''huzillaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)hussuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''keneh'''<br /> |'''angeneh'''<br /> |'''kahetteh'''<br /> |'''kenallaeh''', '''krallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)kunuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustajeh'''<br /> |'''anstajneh'''<br /> |'''ustatteh''', '''ustitteh'''<br /> |'''ustallaeh''', '''ustillaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)stajuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''majeh'''<br /> |'''amanneh'''<br /> |'''menetteh'''<br /> |'''mjallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)mujuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trakeh'''<br /> |'''atrakaneh'''<br /> |'''tetraketteh'''<br /> |'''ketrallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)trakʃeh'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The infinitive may be used as a noun, but also with certain auxiliary verbs. When a participle is used as a noun, usually the definite article may be omitted. Ex.: <br /> <br /> *'''(Tru) kotaeh laej suwani.''' / '''(Tru) kotaeh suwanjaej.''' &quot;Eating is good.&quot;<br /> <br /> ==== Participle ====<br /> Participles are built by adding specific suffixes to the corresponding stems of the verb: <br /> * '''-ur''' (active participle)<br /> * '''-ek''' (passive participle)<br /> <br /> The prefix '''u-''' of the unrealised stem is dropped.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Generic<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Cursive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Aorist<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmalur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalek'''<br /> |'''akʃmalanur'''<br /> |'''akʃmalanek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalettur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalettek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaur''', '''kaʃmallur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaek''', '''kaʃmallek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaluʃur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaluʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''laur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''alanur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lattur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lallaur''', '''lallur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lauʃur'''<br /> | <br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadraur'''<br /> |'''gadraek'''<br /> |'''agandranur'''<br /> |'''agandranek'''<br /> |'''gadrettur'''<br /> |'''gadrettek'''<br /> |'''gadrallur'''<br /> |'''gadrallek'''<br /> |'''gadruʃur'''<br /> |'''gadruʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kotaur'''<br /> |'''kotaek'''<br /> |'''ankonur'''<br /> |'''ankonek'''<br /> |'''kotattur'''<br /> |'''kotattek'''<br /> |'''kekollur'''<br /> |'''kekollek'''<br /> |'''kotuʃur'''<br /> |'''kotuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussiur'''<br /> |'''hussiek'''<br /> |'''ahsejnur'''<br /> |'''ahsejnek'''<br /> |'''hustur'''<br /> |'''hustek'''<br /> |'''huzillaur'''<br /> |'''huzillaek'''<br /> |'''hussuʃur'''<br /> |'''hussuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''kenur'''<br /> |'''kenek'''<br /> |'''angenur'''<br /> |'''angenek'''<br /> |'''kahettur'''<br /> |'''kahettek'''<br /> |'''kenallur''', '''krallur'''<br /> |'''kenallek''', '''krallek'''<br /> |'''kunuʃur'''<br /> |'''kunuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustajur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''anstajnur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustattur''', '''ustittur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustallur''', '''ustillek'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustajuʃur'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''majur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''amannur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''menettur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''mjallur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''mujuʃur'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trakur'''<br /> |'''trakek'''<br /> |'''atrakanur'''<br /> |'''atrakanek'''<br /> |'''tetrakettur'''<br /> |'''tetrakettek'''<br /> |'''ketrallur'''<br /> |'''ketrallek'''<br /> |'''trakʃur'''<br /> |'''trakʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka''' &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |'''ʃakaur'''<br /> |'''ʃakaek'''<br /> |'''aʃkanur'''<br /> |'''aʃkanek'''<br /> |'''ʃakkattur'''<br /> |'''ʃakkattek'''<br /> |'''ʃakallur'''<br /> |'''ʃakallek'''<br /> |'''ʃakkuʃur'''<br /> |'''ʃakkuʃek'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The corresponding negative versions of these participles are formed regularly with the suffix '''-(i)nd-'''. Ex.:<br /> * '''landur''' &quot;not being&quot;<br /> * '''angenindur''' &quot;not seeing&quot;<br /> * '''gradrettindek''' &quot;not written&quot;<br /> * '''ketrallindur''' &quot;who/which had not done&quot;<br /> * '''aʃkanindek''' &quot;which isn't being hunted&quot;<br /> <br /> === Passive Voice ===<br /> <br /> The passive voice is built with the auxiliary '''kʃa''', conjugated regularly, followed by the base form of the verb. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''akʃanus taldesyys''' &quot;I'm being taken care of&quot;<br /> * '''akʃanindmis ken''' &quot;you were not being seen&quot;<br /> * '''kʃallaɔn kaʃmal''' &quot;we have been taken&quot;<br /> * '''kʃattsɛw kota''' &quot;they were eaten&quot;<br /> * '''ikkʃindej trak''' &quot;if it's not done&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> === Conjugation ===<br /> Next you have a few verbs, conjugated in all its forms.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|Verb '''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Present<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Continuous <br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Perfect <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Near Future <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Present <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''laus'''<br /> |'''landus'''<br /> |'''alanus'''<br /> |'''alanindus'''<br /> |'''lallaus'''<br /> |'''lallandus'''<br /> |'''ulauʃus'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindus'''<br /> |'''illaius'''<br /> |'''illaindus'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''laim'''<br /> |'''landim'''<br /> |'''alanim'''<br /> |'''alanindim'''<br /> |'''lallaim'''<br /> |'''lallandim'''<br /> |'''ulauʃim'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindim'''<br /> |'''illaiim'''<br /> |'''illaindim'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''laej'''<br /> |'''landej'''<br /> |'''alanej'''<br /> |'''alanindej'''<br /> |'''lallaej'''<br /> |'''lallandej'''<br /> |'''ulauʃej'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindej'''<br /> |'''illaiej'''<br /> |'''illaindej'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''laɔn'''<br /> |'''landɔn'''<br /> |'''alanɔn'''<br /> |'''alanindɔn'''<br /> |'''lallaɔn'''<br /> |'''lallandɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindɔn'''<br /> |'''illaiɔn'''<br /> |'''illaindɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laib'''<br /> |'''landib'''<br /> |'''alanib'''<br /> |'''alanindib'''<br /> |'''lallaib'''<br /> |'''lallandib'''<br /> |'''ulauʃib'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindib'''<br /> |'''illaiib'''<br /> |'''illaindib'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''laɛw'''<br /> |'''landɛw'''<br /> |'''alanɛw'''<br /> |'''alanindɛw'''<br /> |'''lallaɛw'''<br /> |'''lallandɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindɛw'''<br /> |'''illaiɛw'''<br /> |'''illaindɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Habitual Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Continuous <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Past <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Past <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''lasa'''<br /> |'''landsa'''<br /> |'''alansa'''<br /> |'''alanindsa'''<br /> |'''lattsa'''<br /> |'''lattindsa'''<br /> |'''lallasa'''<br /> |'''lallandsa'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsa'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsa'''<br /> |'''illaisa'''<br /> |'''illaindsa'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''lamis'''<br /> |'''landmis'''<br /> |'''alanmis'''<br /> |'''alanindmis'''<br /> |'''lattmis'''<br /> |'''lattindmis'''<br /> |'''lallamis'''<br /> |'''lallandmis'''<br /> |'''ulauʃmis'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindmis'''<br /> |'''illaimis'''<br /> |'''illaindmis'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''lajes'''<br /> |'''landjes'''<br /> |'''alanjes'''<br /> |'''alanindjes'''<br /> |'''lattjes'''<br /> |'''lattindjes'''<br /> |'''lallajes'''<br /> |'''lallandjes'''<br /> |'''ulauʃjes'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindjes'''<br /> |'''illaijes'''<br /> |'''illaindjes'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''lasɔn'''<br /> |'''landsɔn'''<br /> |'''alansɔn'''<br /> |'''alanindsɔn'''<br /> |'''lattsɔn'''<br /> |'''lattindsɔn'''<br /> |'''lallasɔn'''<br /> |'''lallandsɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsɔn'''<br /> |'''illaisɔn'''<br /> |'''illaiindsɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laips'''<br /> |'''landips'''<br /> |'''alanips'''<br /> |'''alanindips'''<br /> |'''lattips'''<br /> |'''lattindips'''<br /> |'''lallaips'''<br /> |'''lallandips'''<br /> |'''ulauʃips'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindips'''<br /> |'''illaiips'''<br /> |'''illaindips'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''lasɛw'''<br /> |'''landsɛw'''<br /> |'''alansɛw'''<br /> |'''alanindsɛw'''<br /> |'''lattsɛw'''<br /> |'''lattindsɛw'''<br /> |'''lallasɛw'''<br /> |'''lallandsɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsɛw'''<br /> |'''illaisɛw'''<br /> |'''illaindsɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Indefinite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Progressive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Definite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Remote Future<br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''laos'''<br /> |'''landos'''<br /> |'''alanos'''<br /> |'''alanindos'''<br /> |'''lattos'''<br /> |'''lattindos'''<br /> |'''lallaos'''<br /> |'''lallandos'''<br /> |'''ulauʃos'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindos'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''laom'''<br /> |'''landom'''<br /> |'''alanom'''<br /> |'''alanindom'''<br /> |'''lattom'''<br /> |'''lattindom'''<br /> |'''lallaom'''<br /> |'''lallandom'''<br /> |'''ulauʃom'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindom'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''laoj'''<br /> |'''landoj'''<br /> |'''alanoj'''<br /> |'''alanindoj'''<br /> |'''lattoj'''<br /> |'''lattindoj'''<br /> |'''lallaoj'''<br /> |'''lallandoj'''<br /> |'''ulauʃoj'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindoj'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''laon'''<br /> |'''landon'''<br /> |'''alanon'''<br /> |'''alanindon'''<br /> |'''latton'''<br /> |'''lattindon'''<br /> |'''lallaon'''<br /> |'''lallandon'''<br /> |'''ulauʃon'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindon'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laob'''<br /> |'''landob'''<br /> |'''alanob'''<br /> |'''alanindob'''<br /> |'''lattob'''<br /> |'''lattindob'''<br /> |'''lallaob'''<br /> |'''lallandob'''<br /> |'''ulauʃob'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindob'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''laow'''<br /> |'''landow'''<br /> |'''alanow'''<br /> |'''alanindow'''<br /> |'''lattow'''<br /> |'''lattindow'''<br /> |'''lallaow'''<br /> |'''lallandow'''<br /> |'''ulauʃow'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindow'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|Verb '''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Present<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Continuous <br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Perfect <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Near Future <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Present <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussius'''<br /> |'''hussindus'''<br /> |'''ahsejnus'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindus'''<br /> |'''huzillaus'''<br /> |'''huzillandus'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃus'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindus'''<br /> |'''ihussejius'''<br /> |'''ihussejindus'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussiim'''<br /> |'''hussindim'''<br /> |'''ahsejnim'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindim'''<br /> |'''huzillaim'''<br /> |'''huzillandim'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃim'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindim'''<br /> |'''ihussejiim'''<br /> |'''ihussejindim'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussije'''<br /> |'''hussindje'''<br /> |'''ahsejnje'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindje'''<br /> |'''huzillaje'''<br /> |'''huzillandje'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃje'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindje'''<br /> |'''ihussejije'''<br /> |'''ihussejindje'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussiɔn'''<br /> |'''hussindɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillaɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillandɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejiɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejindɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiib'''<br /> |'''hussindib'''<br /> |'''ahsejnib'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindib'''<br /> |'''huzillaib'''<br /> |'''huzillandib'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃib'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindib'''<br /> |'''ihussejiib'''<br /> |'''ihussejindib'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussiɛw'''<br /> |'''hussindɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillaɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillandɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejiɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejindɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Habitual Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Continuous <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Past <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Past <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussisa'''<br /> |'''hussindsa'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsa'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsa'''<br /> |'''hustsa'''<br /> |'''hustindsa'''<br /> |'''huzillasa'''<br /> |'''huzillandsa'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsa'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsa'''<br /> |'''ihussejisa'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsa'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussimis'''<br /> |'''hussindmis'''<br /> |'''ahsejnmis'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindmis'''<br /> |'''hustmis'''<br /> |'''hustindmis'''<br /> |'''huzillamis'''<br /> |'''huzillandmis'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃmis'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindmis'''<br /> |'''ihussejimis'''<br /> |'''ihussejindmis'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussijes'''<br /> |'''hussindjes'''<br /> |'''ahsejnjes'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindjes'''<br /> |'''hustjes'''<br /> |'''hustindjes'''<br /> |'''huzillajes'''<br /> |'''huzillandjes'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃjes'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindjes'''<br /> |'''ihussejijes'''<br /> |'''ihussejindjes'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussisɔn'''<br /> |'''hussindsɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsɔn'''<br /> |'''hustsɔn'''<br /> |'''hustindsɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillasɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillandsɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejisɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiips'''<br /> |'''hussindips'''<br /> |'''ahsejnips'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindips'''<br /> |'''hustips'''<br /> |'''hustindips'''<br /> |'''huzillaips'''<br /> |'''huzillandips'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃips'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindips'''<br /> |'''ihussejiips'''<br /> |'''ihussejindips'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussisɛw'''<br /> |'''hussindsɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsɛw'''<br /> |'''hustsɛw'''<br /> |'''hustindsɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillasɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillandsɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejisɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Indefinite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Progressive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Definite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Remote Future<br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussios'''<br /> |'''hussindos'''<br /> |'''ahsejnos'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindos'''<br /> |'''hustos'''<br /> |'''hustindos'''<br /> |'''huzillaos'''<br /> |'''huzillandos'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃos'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindos'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussiom'''<br /> |'''hussindom'''<br /> |'''ahsejnom'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindom'''<br /> |'''hustom'''<br /> |'''hustindom'''<br /> |'''huzillaom'''<br /> |'''huzillandom'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃom'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindom'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussioj'''<br /> |'''hussindoj'''<br /> |'''ahsejnoj'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindoj'''<br /> |'''hustoj'''<br /> |'''hustindoj'''<br /> |'''huzillaoj'''<br /> |'''huzillandoj'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃoj'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindoj'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussion'''<br /> |'''hussindon'''<br /> |'''ahsejnon'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindon'''<br /> |'''huston'''<br /> |'''hustindon'''<br /> |'''huzillaon'''<br /> |'''huzillandon'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃon'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindon'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiob'''<br /> |'''hussindob'''<br /> |'''ahsejnob'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindob'''<br /> |'''hustob'''<br /> |'''hustindob'''<br /> |'''huzillaob'''<br /> |'''huzillandob'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃob'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindob'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussiow'''<br /> |'''hussindow'''<br /> |'''ahsejnow'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindow'''<br /> |'''hustow'''<br /> |'''hustindow'''<br /> |'''huzillaow'''<br /> |'''huzillandow'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃow'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindow'''<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Incorporation ===<br /> Besides complementing a verb with a noun phrase in the accusative (or some other) case, complements may be incorporated in the verb. This resource is particularly common with more frequent verb + complement combinations. Common verbs, especially indicating more fundamental actions such as &quot;eat&quot;, &quot;drink&quot;, &quot;take&quot;, &quot;speak&quot;, &quot;make&quot;, &quot;kill&quot; &amp;c. are more prone to this type of constructions, while more abstract verbs, as well as less frequently used verbs, tend to follow the more conventional verb + complement approach. <br /> <br /> When a complement is incorporated to a verb, it receives the prefix '''s-''' and is placed before the verb root. Irregularities are not uncommon. <br /> Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Regular Construction<br /> !Incorporation<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota ʃøga'''<br /> |'''sʃøgkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat meat&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota dabasa'''<br /> |'''sdabaskota'''<br /> |&quot;eat bread&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota drupala'''<br /> |'''sdrupalkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat vegetables&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota pinim'''<br /> |'''spinimkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat fruit&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''twiʃin halajna'''<br /> |'''shalantwiʃin'''<br /> |&quot;drink water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''twiʃin myndra'''<br /> |'''smyndtwiʃin'''<br /> |&quot;drink alcoholic beverage&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys menira'''<br /> |'''smeniraldesyys'''<br /> |&quot;take care of a child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys apsala'''<br /> |'''sapsaldesyys'''<br /> |&quot;take care of everything&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi tuglaa'''<br /> |'''stuglussi'''<br /> |&quot;hear a noise&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka pœrakʃa'''<br /> |'''spœrakʃaka'''<br /> |&quot;hunt a beast&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak tilmara'''<br /> |'''stilmatrak'''<br /> |&quot;make a mistake&quot;<br /> |}</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Conlangs/Dahur&diff=5380 Conlangs/Dahur 2026-09-13T01:47:02Z <p>Panglossa: /* Predicative Adjectives */</p> <hr /> <div>{{DISPLAYTITLE:Dahur}}<br /> {{RightTOC}}<br /> =Phonology=<br /> <br /> ==Vowels==<br /> <br /> Dahur vowels are usually short. Double vowels (ex.: aa, ee &amp;c.) may happen, but they are considered as simple vowel sequences.<br /> <br /> The following vowels qualities are distinguished: <br /> <br /> '''a''' '''e''' '''ɛ''' '''i''' '''o''' '''ɔ''' '''ø''' '''œ''' '''u''' '''y'''<br /> <br /> The diagram below shows the 10 vowels of Dahur.<br /> <br /> [[File:dahurvowels.png|link=]]<br /> <br /> In practice, the vowel /a/ may actually vary between /a/, /ä/ and /ɑ/.<br /> <br /> Merging of /ø/ and /œ/ is fairly common, especially in more informal contexts, as these two vowels mostly don't occur as minimal pair (except in a couple cases).<br /> <br /> ==Consonants==<br /> <br /> Dahur consonants are as follows: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;border-width:0px&quot;|<br /> !Bilabial<br /> !Labiodental<br /> !Alveolar<br /> !Postalveolar<br /> !Palatal<br /> !Velar<br /> !Glottal<br /> |-<br /> !Nasal<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''m'''<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''n'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Plosive<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''p''' '''b'''<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''t''' '''d'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''k''' '''g'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Sibilant fricative<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''s''' '''z'''<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''ʃ''' '''ʒ''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Non-sibilant fricative<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''f''' '''v''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''h'''<br /> |-<br /> !Approximant<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''j'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Tap/Flap/Trill<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''ɾ''' '''r''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Lateral Approx.<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''l'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The rhotic consonant ('''r''') is in free variation and may be realised either as a tap, a flap or a trill. The trill pronunciation (/r/) is more common at the beginning of a syllable, and even more so at the beginning of a word. The tap/flap pronunciation (/ɾ/) is more common in consonant clusters, especially after a plosive. <br /> <br /> In Dahur phonology, the combinations '''tr''' and '''kʃ''' count as single, independent consonants.<br /> <br /> ==Phonotactics==<br /> A syllable in Dahur must contain one vowel, which may be preceded and/or followed by any number of consonants. In practice, consonant clusters don't usually go beyond four consonants. For that account, '''kʃ''' and '''tɾ''' are always considered as single consonants. <br /> <br /> All consonant sequences are possible. However, in practice, some consonant combinations (ex. '''-hm-''', '''-tɾkʃ-''' &amp;c.) are rare.<br /> <br /> Some studies consider the existence of a glottal stop when a proper consonant is absent. This view is reflected in the writing, which has a special sign for the glottal stop / lack of a consonant. The last consonant of a syllable can be doubled. <br /> <br /> Examples of valid syllables: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''a'''<br /> | '''tɛ'''<br /> | '''en'''<br /> | '''wi'''<br /> | '''koj'''<br /> | '''gjɔ'''<br /> | '''pɾujn'''<br /> | '''kʃtɾa'''<br /> | '''fʃtlœmbz'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Stress==<br /> In the standard pronunciation, words are stressed on the next-to-last syllable. However, if the last syllable contains the consonant /tɾ/, it will be stressed.<br /> <br /> Ex.:<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''&lt;u&gt;ka&lt;/u&gt;nar''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/ˈka.nar/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''os&lt;u&gt;trøn&lt;/u&gt;dɛl''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/os.ˈtɾøn.dɛl/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''&lt;u&gt;tef&lt;/u&gt;ʃiv''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/ˈtef.ʃiv/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''da&lt;u&gt;sutɾ&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/daˈsutɾ/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''maʃkin&lt;u&gt;tɾod&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/maʃ.kinˈtɾod/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Doubled vowels in the last syllable may sound as a long, stressed vowel; however, they are actually two separate vowels, each one in a different syllable, with stress falling on the first one (or on the last, in case that syllable contains the consonant '''tr'''). It is not uncommon to hear an epenthetic '''h''', '''j''' or '''w''' between the two vowels.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kaj&lt;u&gt;na&lt;/u&gt;ar''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/kaj.ˈna.ar/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/kaj.ˈna.har/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> | '''pakisa&lt;u&gt;atr&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/pa.ki.sa.ˈatr/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/pa.ki.sa.ˈhatr/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> | '''tøndel&lt;u&gt;li&lt;/u&gt;in''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.in/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.jin/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.hin/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''talde&lt;u&gt;sy&lt;/u&gt;ys''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tal.de.ˈsy.ys/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tal.de.ˈsy.hys/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =Writing=<br /> <br /> [[Dahur script]] consists in an alphasyllabary consisting in separate letters indicating consonants, a combination of separate letters and diacritics to indicate vowels, as well as certain special letters for individual syllables.<br /> <br /> =Morphology=<br /> <br /> Dahur is a highly flexional language, with a strong presence of irregular forms.<br /> <br /> Nouns inflect for number, which is basically singular and plural, but there are also occurrences of dual (for things normally occurring in pairs) and singulative (for individual items of things usually found collectively). <br /> <br /> Nouns also inflect for case, usually: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, locative, instrumental, ergative and ablative. Instances of partitive and vocative are also found. The case called ergative is used basically for the agent of the passive voice.<br /> <br /> Adjectives show no agreement to nouns, and inflect for degree (comparatives of superiority, equality, inferiority; relative and absolute superlative).<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Nouns==<br /> <br /> <br /> === Class ===<br /> <br /> Dahurian nouns are divided in five classes, which can be compared to Latin or Greek declensions, as they consist in different inflection patterns, but may also be seen as a form of gender, as class is usually (but not always necessarily) related to the meaning of a noun. <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class 1<br /> |Living beings<br /> |-<br /> !Class 2<br /> |General objects<br /> |-<br /> !Class 3<br /> |Natural elements; insects<br /> |-<br /> !Class 4<br /> |Parts of human body; clothing<br /> |-<br /> !Class 5<br /> |Abstract nouns; traditional imaginary beings<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There are no morphological indications related to noun classes in the nominative singular. The differences appear along the inflection of nouns.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Number ===<br /> Nouns in Dahur have a singular and a plural. The plural ending varies according to noun class and to case. There is also a dual number, which is valid only for nouns normally occurring in pairs. Mass or collective nouns have a singulative inflection, but this is not very systematically indicated.<br /> <br /> <br /> So, for example:<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> !Dual<br /> !Singulative<br /> |-<br /> |class 1<br /> |'''grats'''<br /> &quot;boy&quot;<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> &quot;boys&quot;<br /> | -<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 2<br /> |'''kɛʃev'''<br /> &quot;hammer&quot;<br /> |'''kɛʃevlin'''<br /> &quot;hammers&quot;<br /> |'''kɛʃevs'''<br /> &quot;pair of hammers&quot; (traditionally used by blacksmiths)<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 3<br /> |'''halajn'''<br /> &quot;water&quot;<br /> |'''halejnn'''<br /> &quot;waters&quot; (i.e. in a flood)<br /> |'''halajns'''<br /> &quot;The Two Waters&quot; (the river Okanuma and the lake Kassanjas)<br /> |'''halajny'''<br /> &quot;a drop of water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |class 4<br /> |'''kanar'''<br /> &quot;eye&quot;<br /> |'''kanarni'''<br /> &quot;many eyes&quot; (mostly figuratively)<br /> |'''kanaris'''<br /> &quot;(two/both) eyes&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 4<br /> |'''kʃalim'''<br /> &quot;hair&quot;<br /> |'''kʃalimni'''<br /> &quot;(types of) hair&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |'''kʃalimy'''<br /> &quot;a (single) hair&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |class 5<br /> |'''astrønɛl'''<br /> &quot;idea&quot;<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> &quot;ideas&quot;<br /> |'''astrønɛls'''<br /> &quot;a couple ideas&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The plural in classes 1, 2 and 5 is usually regular, obtained with the respective suffixes ('''-en''', '''-lin''', '''-jan'''). <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 1<br /> |'''katlaj'''<br /> &quot;girlfriend&quot;<br /> |'''katlajen'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''dukʃatr'''<br /> &quot;boss&quot;<br /> |'''dukʃatren'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''egastɛv'''<br /> &quot;farmer&quot;<br /> |'''egastɛven'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 2<br /> |'''takoj'''<br /> &quot;pin&quot;<br /> |'''takojlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''uhpsan'''<br /> &quot;paper&quot;<br /> |'''uhpsanlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''dasutr'''<br /> &quot;document, file&quot;<br /> |'''dasutrlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 5<br /> |'''pɛktegal'''<br /> &quot;angel&quot;<br /> |'''pɛktegaljan'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ostrøndɛl'''<br /> &quot;interruption&quot;<br /> |'''ostrøndɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''piktaraʃ'''<br /> &quot;problem&quot;<br /> |'''piktaraʃjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In classes 3 and 4, besides the suffixes ('''-n''', '''-ni'''), most nouns suffer some sort of mutation, usually affecting only one vowel but non uncommonly consisting of more significative changes.<br /> <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 3<br /> |'''pakpaki'''<br /> &quot;louse&quot;<br /> |'''pakpɛkin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''pahalis'''<br /> &quot;leaf&quot;<br /> |'''pahaljen'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''tʃeptal'''<br /> &quot;cloud&quot;<br /> |'''tʃapatlin''', '''tʃaptlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 4<br /> |'''kraus'''<br /> &quot;ear&quot;<br /> |'''krojsni'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ɛmblew'''<br /> &quot;hat&quot;<br /> |'''ɛmbalni'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''krikter'''<br /> &quot;helmet&quot;<br /> |'''kruktni'''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Case ===<br /> Dahur nouns inflect for the following cases: <br /> * '''nominative''' (subject, predicative)<br /> * '''accusative''' (direct object, motion towards)<br /> * '''dative''' (indirect object)<br /> * '''genitive''' (possession, partitive, origin)<br /> * '''locative''' (location, placement)<br /> * '''instrumental''' (instrument, means, company)<br /> * '''ablative''' (adverbial)<br /> * '''ergative''' (agent of the passive voice)<br /> <br /> All cases except the nominative and the ergative can be used with prepositions.<br /> <br /> Certain nouns, mostly nouns indicating human beings, also show a vocative form, mostly formed with the ending '''-e''', but usually irregular. <br /> <br /> Certain nouns, for example nouns indicating mass or food, show a partitive case, usually formed with the ending '''-(i)t'''. <br /> <br /> <br /> === Inflection ===<br /> <br /> Noun declension in Dahur is quite regular, in terms of case and the less usual numbers, viz. the dual and the singulative.<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 1<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 2<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 3<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 4<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 5<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''-'''<br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-en'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-lin'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-n'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-is'''<br /> |'''-ni'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-an'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-lajn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-an'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-jas'''<br /> |'''-nja'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-un'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-lun'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-wan'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-ujs'''<br /> |'''-nu'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-ujn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''-ak'''<br /> |'''-ask'''<br /> |'''-ken'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ik'''<br /> |'''-isk'''<br /> |'''-link'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-aʃ'''<br /> |'''-ʃas'''<br /> |'''-ʃan'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-iʃ'''<br /> |'''-siʃ'''<br /> |'''-niʃ'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ik'''<br /> |'''-isk'''<br /> |'''-jank'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-emb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-limb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-emb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-bis'''<br /> |'''-nibb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-jamb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-nom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-lom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-nom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-joms'''<br /> |'''-njom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-njom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-nɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-lɛnv''', '''-lɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-nɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-jɛfs'''<br /> |'''-njɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-njɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-løtr'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-sjøtr'''<br /> |'''-trøjn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøjn'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> &lt;!---<br /> * The '''nominative''' case is the basic form of nouns.<br /> * The '''accusative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-a'''. <br /> * The '''dative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-si'''.<br /> * The '''genitive''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ak''' for animate intelligent beings, '''-iʃ''' for animals, '''-is''' for concrete objects and '''-ɔn''' for abstract things.<br /> * The '''locative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-us'''. With animate nouns, the locative can mean &quot;on&quot;, or &quot;with&quot;, as in &quot;carrying with&quot;. <br /> * The '''instrumental''' case is indicated by the enging '''-em''' for animate intelligent beings, '''-om''' for animals, '''-um''' for things.<br /> * The '''ergative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-øtr'''. <br /> * The '''ablative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ɛv'''. <br /> --&gt;<br /> <br /> When an ending starting with a vowel is applied, a final '''-i''' becomes '''-j-''', and a final '''-u''' becomes '''-w-'''; otherwise, an '''-h-''' is added. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''dula''' &quot;babysitter&quot;, '''dulahen''' &quot;babysitters&quot;<br /> * '''agdari''' &quot;prisoner&quot;, '''agdarjen''' &quot;prisoners&quot;<br /> * '''pakpaki''' &quot;louse&quot;, '''pakpakja''' &quot;louse (accus.)&quot;, '''pakpakjaʃ''' &quot;of a louse&quot;, '''pakpakjom''' &quot;by a louse&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> In the following tables, you have some examples of nouns of the various classes, fully inflected for number and case.<br /> <br /> * Class 1: '''grats''' &quot;boy&quot; <br /> * Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' &quot;hammer&quot; <br /> * Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' &quot;cloud&quot; <br /> * Class 4: '''kraus''' &quot;ear&quot; <br /> * Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' &quot;idea&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 1: '''grats''' &quot;boy&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''grats'''<br /> |'''gratss'''<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''gratsa'''<br /> |'''gratsas'''<br /> |'''gratsan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''gratsu'''<br /> |'''gratsus'''<br /> |'''gratsun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''gratsak'''<br /> |'''gratsask'''<br /> |'''gratsken'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''gratsebb'''<br /> |'''gratseps'''<br /> |'''gratsemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''gratsom'''<br /> |'''gratsoms'''<br /> |'''gratsnom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''gratsɛv'''<br /> |'''gratsɛfs'''<br /> |'''gratsnɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''gratsøtr'''<br /> |'''gratssøtr'''<br /> |'''gratsetrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Vocative<br /> |'''gratse'''<br /> |'''gratses'''<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' &quot;hammer&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''kɛʃev'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevs'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlin'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''kɛʃeva'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevas'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlajn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''kɛʃevu'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevus'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''kɛʃevik'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevisk'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlink'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''kɛʃevebb'''<br /> |'''kɛʃeveps'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlimb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''kɛʃevom'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevoms'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''kɛʃevɛv'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevɛfs'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlɛnv''', '''kɛʃevlɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''kɛʃevøtr'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevsøtr'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevløtr'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' &quot;cloud&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''tʃeptal'''<br /> |'''tʃeptals'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlin'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''tʃeptala'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalas'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlijan''', '''tʃaptljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''tʃeptalu'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalus'''<br /> |'''tʃaptliwan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''tʃeptalaʃ'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalʃas'''<br /> |'''tʃaptliʃan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''tʃeptalebb'''<br /> |'''tʃeptaleps'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlijemb''', '''tʃaptljemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''tʃeptalom'''<br /> |'''tʃeptaloms'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlinom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''tʃeptalɛv'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalɛfs'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlinɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''tʃeptaløtr'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalsøtr'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlitrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''tʃeptalt'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalts'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlint'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 4: '''kraus''' &quot;ear&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''kraus'''<br /> |'''krausis'''<br /> |'''krojsni'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''krausa'''<br /> |'''krausjas'''<br /> |'''krojsnja'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''krausu'''<br /> |'''krausujs'''<br /> |'''krojsnu'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''krausiʃ'''<br /> |'''kraussiʃ'''<br /> |'''krojsniʃ'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''krausebb'''<br /> |'''krauseps'''<br /> |'''krojsnibb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''krausom'''<br /> |'''krausoms'''<br /> |'''krojsnjom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''krausɛv'''<br /> |'''krausɛfs'''<br /> |'''krojsnjɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''krausøtr'''<br /> |'''krausjøtr'''<br /> |'''krojstrøjn'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' &quot;idea&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''astrønɛls'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''astrønɛla'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlas'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''astrønɛlu'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlus'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlujn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''astrønɛlik'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlisk'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljank'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''astrønɛlebb'''<br /> |'''astrønɛleps'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljamb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''astrønɛlom'''<br /> |'''astrønɛloms'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlnjom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''astrønɛlɛv'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlɛfs'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlnjɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''astrønɛløtr'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlsøtr'''<br /> |'''astrønɛltrøjn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''astrønɛlt'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlts'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljant'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Articles ==<br /> <br /> === Definite Article === <br /> <br /> The definite article inflects for case and number, and is quite irregular. <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> !Singulative <br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''tru'''<br /> |'''gas'''<br /> |'''tann'''<br /> |'''try'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''na'''<br /> |'''ga'''<br /> |'''ta'''<br /> |'''ny'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''kʃu'''<br /> |'''gu'''<br /> |'''tun'''<br /> |'''kʃu'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''kis'''<br /> |'''gak'''<br /> |'''tak'''<br /> |'''kis'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''debb'''<br /> |'''gebb'''<br /> |'''tebb'''<br /> |'''debb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''trom'''<br /> |'''gom'''<br /> |'''tom'''<br /> |'''trom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative <br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |'''gɛv'''<br /> |'''tɛv'''<br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''trø'''<br /> |'''gøtr'''<br /> |'''tøtr'''<br /> |'''trø'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Indefinite Article === <br /> <br /> Dahur has no proper indefinite article. <br /> <br /> If it's really necessary to mark a noun phrase as indefinite, an indefinite pronoun may be used. The most common is '''lum''' (invariable), meaning &quot;some&quot;, &quot;a certain&quot; &amp;c.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Prepositions ==<br /> <br /> Prepositions in Dahur require the noun in one of the following cases: <br /> <br /> * accusative<br /> * dative<br /> * genitive<br /> * ablative<br /> * instrumental<br /> * locative<br /> <br /> The nominative and the ergative are '''never''' used with prepositions. <br /> <br /> In the table below you have the most common Dahur prepositions: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Preposition<br /> !Case<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''dun'''<br /> |''locative'', ''accusative of movement''<br /> |inside<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''yin'''<br /> |''dative''<br /> |for, in behalf of<br /> |-<br /> |''accusative''<br /> |towards<br /> |-<br /> |'''ari''', '''ar'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |from, out of<br /> |-<br /> |'''yuʃ'''<br /> |''genitive'', ''ablative''<br /> |because of<br /> |-<br /> |'''vøj'''<br /> |''locative''<br /> |through<br /> |-<br /> |'''syn'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |near<br /> |-<br /> |'''kʃe'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |since, ago<br /> |-<br /> |'''pɛn'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |besides, next to<br /> |-<br /> |'''lujg'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |in front of<br /> |-<br /> |'''mœh'''<br /> |''ablative''<br /> |without<br /> |-<br /> |'''sto'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |on, on top of<br /> |-<br /> |'''krɔj'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |under<br /> |-<br /> |'''tjɛs'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |before (time)<br /> |-<br /> |'''gwaj'''<br /> |''accusative''<br /> |after (time)<br /> |-<br /> |'''fyj'''<br /> |''ablative''<br /> |during<br /> |-<br /> |'''vlen'''<br /> |''instrumental''<br /> |despite<br /> |-<br /> |'''uhk'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |except<br /> |-<br /> |'''uzd'''<br /> |''dative''<br /> |instead of<br /> |-<br /> |'''blas'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |behind<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> * '''yin na hedana''' &quot;towards the house&quot;<br /> * '''dun na hedana''' &quot;into the house&quot;<br /> * '''ar kis hedanik''' &quot;from the house&quot;, &quot;out of the house&quot;<br /> * '''syn debb hedanebb''' &quot;near the house&quot;<br /> * '''syn na hedana''' &quot;going near of the house&quot;<br /> * '''pɛn debb hedanebb''' &quot;besides the house&quot;, &quot;next to the house&quot;<br /> * '''pɛn na hedana''' &quot;going next to the house&quot;<br /> * '''lujg debb hedanebb''' &quot;in front to the house&quot;<br /> * '''lujg na hedana''' &quot;going to the front of the house&quot;<br /> * '''mœh dɛv hedanɛv''' &quot;without the house&quot;<br /> * '''sto debb hedanebb''' &quot;on top of the house&quot;<br /> * '''sto na hedana''' &quot;going onto (the top of) the house&quot;<br /> * '''krɔj debb hedanebb''' &quot;under the house&quot;<br /> * '''uzd kʃu hedanu''' &quot;instead of the house&quot;<br /> * '''blas debb hedanebb''' &quot;behind the house&quot;<br /> * '''blas na hedana''' &quot;going behind the house&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> == Adjectives ==<br /> <br /> === Attributive Adjectives ===<br /> Attributive adjectives in Dahur are invariable and come before the noun. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''fɛren grats''' &quot;a smart boy&quot;<br /> * '''duʃ halajn''' &quot;clean water&quot;<br /> * '''selak kanaris''' &quot;pretty eyes&quot;<br /> <br /> A few attributes may be expressed by affixes to the noun, instead of the separate adjective. The most common ones are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar'''<br /> |'''-os''' <br /> (usually deleting the last vowel of the original noun)<br /> |&quot;big&quot;, &quot;large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr'''<br /> |'''-in-''' <br /> (before the last vowel of the or. noun)<br /> |&quot;small&quot;, &quot;little&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani'''<br /> |'''-(t)ta-''' <br /> (before the second vowel of the or. noun)<br /> |&quot;good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''<br /> |'''-aar'''<br /> |&quot;bad&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !With Adjective<br /> !With Affixed Form<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''piktarʃos''' <br /> |&quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''piktarinaʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a little problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''attastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a good idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlaar'''<br /> |&quot;a bad idea&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Certain adjectives have a special, shortened form, which is prefixed to nouns when used attributively. <br /> The most common ones are: <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar'''<br /> |'''nah-''' <br /> |&quot;big&quot;, &quot;large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr'''<br /> |'''ki-''' <br /> (doubles the initial consonant of the noun)<br /> |&quot;small&quot;, &quot;little&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani'''<br /> |'''suw-''' ('''suww-''' before vowels)<br /> |&quot;good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''<br /> |'''dag-''' ('''dagg-''' before vowels)<br /> |&quot;bad&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin'''<br /> |'''sin-''' <br /> |&quot;new&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ'''<br /> |'''dom-''' <br /> |&quot;old&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''mahhalis'''<br /> |'''mah-''' <br /> |&quot;ancient&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''', '''makʃølin'''<br /> |'''møkʃ-''' <br /> |&quot;important&quot;, &quot;great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan'''<br /> |'''tos-''', '''tan-''' <br /> |&quot;beautiful&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki'''<br /> |'''killi-''' <br /> |&quot;false&quot;, &quot;fake&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !With Adjective<br /> !With Prefix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''nahpiktaraʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''kippiktaraʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a small problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''suwwastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a good idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''daggastrønɛl'''<br /> |&quot;a bad idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin dasutr'''<br /> |'''sindasutr''' <br /> |&quot;a new document&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ hedan'''<br /> |'''domhedan''' <br /> |&quot;an old house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''mahhalis kataʃtevan'''<br /> |'''mahkataʃtevan''' <br /> |&quot;an ancient civilization&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen dasutr''', '''makʃølin dasutr'''<br /> |'''møkʃdasutr''' <br /> |&quot;an important document&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen astrønɛl''', '''makʃølin astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''møkʃastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a great idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan dummal'''<br /> |'''tosdummal''', '''tandummal''' <br /> |&quot;a beautiful song&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki bɔrakʃ'''<br /> |'''killibɔrakʃ''' <br /> |&quot;false news&quot;, &quot;fake news&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Predicative Adjectives ===<br /> <br /> An adjective used in predicative function is invariable. Only the full forms of adjectives can be used predicatively. <br /> <br /> Usually a linking verb is employed. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru astrønɛl laje makʃølen.''' || The idea is great.<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru grats alanje befitra.''' || The boy is tired.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is also the possibility of turning adjectives into verbs. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru astrønɛl makʃølnaje.''' || The idea is great.<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru grats abefitranje.''' || The boy is tired.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The most common way to make an adjective into a verb, implying the idea of &quot;be&quot;, is the suffix '''-a-''', which may cause some change in the last syllable of the original adjective. If the adjective already ends in '''-a''', there is no change. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''' <br /> &quot;great&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølna''' <br /> &quot;be great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;be tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani''' <br /> &quot;good&quot;<br /> |'''suwanja''' <br /> &quot;be good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''' <br /> &quot;bad&quot;<br /> |'''daggusa''' <br /> &quot;be bad&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin''' <br /> &quot;new&quot;<br /> |'''sulna''', '''sinna''' <br /> &quot;be new&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ''' <br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dɛtra''' <br /> &quot;be old&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan''' <br /> &quot;beautiful&quot;<br /> |'''tossana''', '''tosna''' <br /> &quot;be beautiful&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''trapter''' <br /> &quot;unique&quot;<br /> |'''traptra''' <br /> &quot;be unique&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃɔtma''' <br /> &quot;sure&quot;, &quot;certain&quot;<br /> |'''ʃɔtama''' <br /> &quot;be sure&quot;, &quot;be certain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kanikli''' <br /> &quot;appropriate&quot;<br /> |'''kankilja''' <br /> &quot;be appropriate&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tubbar''' <br /> &quot;white&quot;<br /> |'''tubabra''' <br /> &quot;be white&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kindis''' <br /> &quot;clear&quot;<br /> |'''kinitsa''' <br /> &quot;be clear&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''turu'''<br /> &quot;wrong&quot;<br /> |'''turva''', '''terva'''<br /> &quot;be wrong&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Another suffix is '''-(a)st(a)-''', meaning &quot;to get&quot; or &quot;to become&quot;. The first optional '''-a-''' appears when necessary, to avoid unsuitable consonant clusters, while the final '''-a''' is only used in the infinitive form of the verb - i.e., without any suffixes. There are some irregular formations.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''' <br /> &quot;great&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølnasta''' <br /> &quot;become great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitrasta''' <br /> &quot;get tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar''' <br /> &quot;big, large&quot;<br /> |'''nahasta''', '''narasta''' <br /> &quot;get big&quot;, &quot;increase&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr''' <br /> &quot;little, small&quot;<br /> |'''kitrasta''', '''katrasta''', '''kirrasta''' <br /> &quot;get smaller&quot;, &quot;decrease&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani''' <br /> &quot;good&quot;<br /> |'''suwanasta'''<br /> &quot;become good&quot;<br /> <br /> '''suwasta''', '''sawasta''', '''suwnasta''' <br /> <br /> &quot;get better&quot;, &quot;improve&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''' , '''daggussa'''<br /> &quot;bad&quot;<br /> |'''daggusasta''', '''daggussasta''' <br /> &quot;become bad&quot;<br /> <br /> '''daggasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get worse&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ'''<br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛsta'''<br /> &quot;become old&quot;<br /> <br /> '''dotrasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get older&quot;, &quot;to age&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan'''<br /> &quot;beautiful<br /> |'''tossanasta'''<br /> &quot;become beautiful&quot;<br /> <br /> '''tossasta''', '''tosnasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get prettier&quot;, &quot;beautify&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki'''<br /> &quot;false&quot;, &quot;fake&quot;<br /> |'''ablikasta'''<br /> &quot;become invalid&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> A few other suffixes perform similar tasks, with more specific meanings. These are usually quite regular. The most productive among these suffixes are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-we'''<br /> |&quot;to remain&quot;, &quot;still be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-kas'''<br /> |&quot;to seem&quot;, &quot;to appear&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-ʃyn'''<br /> |&quot;to pretend to be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-dobb(a)-'''<br /> |&quot;to cease to be&quot;, &quot;to be no longer&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-guj'''<br /> |&quot;to be a little bit&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''nøssar''' <br /> &quot;calm&quot;<br /> |'''nøssarwe''' &quot;remain calm&quot;, &quot;keep calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarkaʃ''' &quot;seem/appear calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarʃyn''' &quot;pretend to be calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssardobba''' &quot;cease to be calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarguj''' &quot;be a little calm&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ''' <br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛkaʃ''' &quot;seem/appear old&quot;<br /> <br /> '''dotrɛguj''' &quot;be a little old&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Comparative === <br /> The comparative of superiority of an adjective can be made by adding the suffix '''-ju''' to the stem. This suffix doubles a preceeding consonant, or becomes '''-jju''' when preceeded by a vowel. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''fɛrennju grats''' &quot;a smarter boy&quot;<br /> * '''duʃʃju halajn''' &quot;cleaner water&quot;<br /> * '''selakkju kanaris''' &quot;prettier eyes&quot;<br /> * '''naharrju piktaraʃ''' &quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> * '''kittrju piktaraʃ''' &quot;a little problem&quot; <br /> * '''suwanijju astrønɛl''' &quot;a better idea&quot;<br /> * '''daggussju''' / '''daggussajju astrønɛl''' &quot;a worse idea&quot;<br /> * '''dotrɛjju pɛten''' &quot;an older book&quot;<br /> <br /> Comparative adjectives may be turned into verbs regularly with the suffix '''-a''', which then becomes '''-wa'''. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølennju''' <br /> &quot;greater&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølennjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be greater&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitrajju''' <br /> &quot;more tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitrajjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be more tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwanijju''' <br /> &quot;better&quot;<br /> |'''suwanijjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be better&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulinnju''' <br /> &quot;newer&quot;<br /> |'''sulinnjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be newer&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛjju''' <br /> &quot;older&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛjjuwa'''<br /> &quot;be older&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossannju''' <br /> &quot;more beautiful&quot;<br /> |'''tossannjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be more beautiful&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The complement of a comparison, corresponding to the conjunction &quot;than&quot;, is placed in the ablative case. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''Nuv pɛten laej suwanijju tuhafɛv.''' &quot;This book is better than that one&quot;<br /> * '''Nuv pɛten suwanijjuwaej tuhafɛv.''' (idem)<br /> * '''Tru dukʃatr laej dotrɛjju dɛv egastɛvɛv.''' &quot;The boss is older than the farmer&quot;<br /> * '''Tru dukʃatr dotrɛjjuwaej dɛv egastɛvɛv.''' (idem)<br /> <br /> == Numerals ==<br /> The basic cardinal numbers are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |0 || '''kal''', '''kahtral'''<br /> |-<br /> |1 || '''mihen'''<br /> |-<br /> |2 || '''dahas'''<br /> |-<br /> |3 || '''travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |4 || '''gazen'''<br /> |-<br /> |5 || '''kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |6 || '''pinjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |7 || '''høtak'''<br /> |-<br /> |8 || '''magɛl'''<br /> |-<br /> |9 || '''donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |10 || '''zɛhɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |11 || '''zɛhɛv mihen''', '''zɛvhen'''<br /> |-<br /> |12 || '''zɛhɛv dahas''', '''zɛvdas'''<br /> |-<br /> |13 || '''zɛhɛv travis''', '''zɛvtras'''<br /> |-<br /> |14 || '''zɛhɛv gazen''', '''zɛvzen'''<br /> |-<br /> |15 || '''zɛhɛv kɛʃav''', '''zɛvkʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |16 || '''zɛhɛv pinjan''', '''zɛvpan'''<br /> |-<br /> |17 || '''zɛhɛv høtak''','''zɛvhøk'''<br /> |-<br /> |18 || '''zɛhɛv magɛl''', '''zɛvmal'''<br /> |-<br /> |19 || '''zɛhɛv donwaʒ''', '''zɛvdaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |20 || '''dahassɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |30 || '''travissɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |40 || '''gazennɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |50 || '''kɛʃavvɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |60 || '''pinjannɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |70 || '''høtakkɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |80 || '''magɛllɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |90 || '''donwaʒʒɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |100 || '''lakin'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,000 || '''tatrimi'''<br /> |-<br /> |10,000 || '''zɛhɛv tatrimi'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Numbers are composed by joining the base units above, from bigger to lower. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |23 || '''dahassɛv travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |45 || '''gazennɛv kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |67 || '''pinjannɛv høtak'''<br /> |-<br /> |89 || '''magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |123 || '''lakin dahassɛv travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |456 || '''gazen lakin kɛʃavvɛv pinjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |789 || '''høtak lakin magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,234 || '''tatrimi dahas lakin travissɛv gazen'''<br /> |-<br /> |5,678 || '''kɛʃav tatrimi pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl'''<br /> |-<br /> |12,345 || '''zɛvdas tatrimi travis lakin gazennɛv kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |678,910 || '''pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl tatrimi donwaʒ lakin zɛhɛv'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Ordinal numbers are created with the suffix '''-iki'''. Ex.: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |1st || '''miheniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |2nd || '''dahasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |3rd || '''travisiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |4th || '''gazeniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |5th || '''kɛʃaviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |6th || '''pinjaniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |7th || '''høtakiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |8th || '''magɛliki'''<br /> |-<br /> |9th || '''donwaʒiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |10th || '''zɛhɛviki''', '''zɛhviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |11th || '''zɛvheniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |12th || '''zɛvdasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |13th || '''zɛvtrasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |14th || '''zɛvzeniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |15th || '''zɛvkʃaviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |16th || '''zɛvpaniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |17th || '''zɛvhøkiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |18th || '''zɛvmaliki'''<br /> |-<br /> |19th || '''zɛvdaʒiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |20th || '''dahassɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |30th || '''travissɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |40th || '''gazennɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |50th || '''kɛʃavvɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |60th || '''pinjannɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |70th || '''høtakkɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |80th || '''magɛllɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |90th || '''donwaʒʒɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |100th || '''lakiniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,000th || '''tatrimiiki'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Pronouns ==<br /> <br /> === Personal Pronouns ===<br /> Personal Pronouns in Dahur indicate person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and number (singular, dual, plural).<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|1st Person<br /> |'''dɛ''' &quot;I&quot; , &quot;me&quot;<br /> |'''ʃes''' &quot;we both&quot;<br /> |'''ʃɛn''' &quot;we&quot;, &quot;us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''dɛ'''<br /> |'''ʃes'''<br /> |'''ʃɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''dɛa''', '''da'''<br /> |'''ʃeas''', '''ʃas'''<br /> |'''ʃan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''dɛw''', '''du'''<br /> |'''ʃeus''', '''ʃews''', '''ʃus'''<br /> |'''ʃɛun''', '''ʃɛwn''', '''ʃun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''dɛk'''<br /> |'''ʃesk'''<br /> |'''ʃɛkɛn''', '''ʃkɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''dɛbb'''<br /> |'''ʃeps'''<br /> |'''ʃɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''dɛm'''<br /> |'''ʃems'''<br /> |'''ʃɛom''', '''ʃom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |'''ʃɛfs'''<br /> |'''ʃɛɛv''', '''ʃɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''dɛjøtr''', '''dɛtr'''<br /> |'''ʃesøtr'''<br /> |'''ʃɛtrøn''', '''ʃtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''dɛt'''<br /> |'''ʃets'''<br /> |'''ʃɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|2nd Person<br /> |'''hej''' &quot;you (sg.), thou&quot;<br /> |'''kwes''' &quot;you both&quot;<br /> |'''kwɛn''' &quot;you (pl.)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''hej'''<br /> |'''kwes'''<br /> |'''kwɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''heja''', '''ja'''<br /> |'''kweas''', '''kwas'''<br /> |'''kwɛan''', '''kwan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''heju''', '''ju'''<br /> |'''kweus'''<br /> |'''kwɛun''', '''kun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''heik''', '''hejik'''<br /> |'''kwesk'''<br /> |'''kwɛnek''', '''kwɛnk'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''heibb''', '''hibb'''<br /> |'''kweps'''<br /> |'''kwɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''heim''', '''him'''<br /> |'''kwems'''<br /> |'''kwɛom''', '''kwɛm''', '''kwom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''hejɛv''', '''jɛv'''<br /> |'''kwɛfs'''<br /> |'''kwɛɛv''', '''kwɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''hejøtr''', '''hjøtr'''<br /> |'''kwesøtr'''<br /> |'''kwɛtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Vocative<br /> |'''heje'''<br /> |'''kwejes'''<br /> |'''kwɛjɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''hɛt'''<br /> |'''kwets'''<br /> |'''kwɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|3rd Person<br /> |'''nar''' &quot;he&quot;, &quot;she&quot;, &quot;it&quot;<br /> |'''ras''' &quot;they both&quot;<br /> |'''ren''' &quot;they&quot;, &quot;them&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''nar'''<br /> |'''ras'''<br /> |'''rɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''nara''', '''ra'''<br /> |'''ras'''<br /> |'''rɛan''', '''ran'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''naru''', '''ru'''<br /> |'''raus''', '''raws''', '''rus'''<br /> |'''rɛun''', '''rɛwn''', '''run'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''narɛk''', '''rɛk'''<br /> |'''resk'''<br /> |'''rɛkɛn''', '''ɛrken'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''narebb''', '''rebb'''<br /> |'''reps'''<br /> |'''rɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''narom''', '''rom'''<br /> |'''rems'''<br /> |'''rɛnom''', '''rom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''narɛv''', '''rɛv'''<br /> |'''rɛfs'''<br /> |'''rɛɛv''', '''rɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''narøtr''', '''røtr'''<br /> |'''resøtr'''<br /> |'''rɛtrøn''', '''ɛrtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''rɛt'''<br /> |'''rets'''<br /> |'''rɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The '''genitive''' forms work as possessive pronouns. In that case, the definite article is optional. Ex.: <br /> * '''tru dɛk astrønɛl''', '''dɛk astrønɛl''' &quot;my idea&quot;<br /> * '''na heik kʃalima''', '''heik kʃalima''' &quot;your hair (accus.)&quot;<br /> * '''trom narɛk kɛʃevom''', '''narɛk kɛʃevom''' &quot;with his/her hammer (instr.)&quot;<br /> * '''tu dɛk menirun''', '''dɛk menirun''' &quot;to my children (dat.)&quot;<br /> <br /> Object pronouns usually come before the verb. The shorter, unstressed version is preferred. Ex.: <br /> * '''Ja angenus.''' &quot;I can see you (sing.).&quot;<br /> * '''Kwas angenus.''' &quot;I can see you two.&quot;<br /> * '''Kwan angenus.''' &quot;I can see you (pl.).&quot;<br /> * '''Ra angenus.''' &quot;I can see it/him/her.&quot;<br /> * '''Ras angenus.''' &quot;I can see them both.&quot;<br /> * '''Ran angenus.''' &quot;I can see them.&quot;<br /> * '''Da angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see me.&quot;<br /> * '''ʃas angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see us both.&quot;<br /> * '''ʃan angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see us.&quot;<br /> <br /> An object pronoun may also appear after the verb. In that case, the preference is for the longer, stressed versions. Ex.:<br /> * '''Angenus ja/heja.''' &quot;I can see you (sing.).&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus kweas/kwas.''' &quot;I can see you two.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus kwɛan/kwan.''' &quot;I can see you (pl.).&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus nara/ra.''' &quot;I can see it/him/her.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus ras.''' &quot;I can see them both.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus rɛan/ran.''' &quot;I can see them.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej dɛa/da.''' &quot;He/she can see me.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej ʃeas/ʃas.''' &quot;He/she can see us both.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej ʃan.''' &quot;He/she can see us.&quot;<br /> <br /> The most common case for a verb complement is the accusative. However, verbs may require different cases. Ex.: <br /> * '''Kun dagsuttoj!''' &quot;It will harm you!&quot; / &quot;It will be harmful to you!&quot; ('''dagusta''' &quot;harm, be harmful&quot; + dat.)<br /> * '''Ja/Ju darʃinɔn.''' &quot;We trust you.&quot; ('''darʃin''' &quot;trust&quot; + acc./dat.)<br /> * '''Poglattindsa narɛv/rɛv''' &quot;I didn't use it.&quot; ('''poglar''' &quot;use&quot; + abl.)<br /> * '''Ra twiʃnettmis.''' &quot;You drank it (all).&quot; / '''Rɛt twiʃnettmis.''' &quot;You drank (some of) it.&quot; '''twiʃin''' &quot;drink&quot; +acc. (whole), +part. (specific amount)<br /> <br /> === Demonstrative Pronouns ===<br /> The main demonstrative pronouns are: <br /> <br /> * '''nuv''' &quot;this, these&quot;<br /> * '''tuhaf''' &quot;that, those&quot;<br /> <br /> When accompanying a noun, they behave as adjectives and are not inflected. <br /> <br /> When used on their own, they stand as nouns and are inflected according to the class of the intended noun. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''Nuv grats laej fɛrennju nuvɛv.''' &quot;This boy is smarter than this one.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> === Interrogative Pronouns ===<br /> <br /> === Indefinite Pronouns ===<br /> <br /> === Relative Pronoun ===<br /> The main relative pronoun in Dahur is '''jao''', as shown in the following table. <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''jao'''<br /> |'''jes'''<br /> |'''jen'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''jaa''', '''ja'''<br /> |'''jeas''', '''jas'''<br /> |'''jaan''', '''jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''jau''', '''jaw'''<br /> |'''jeus''', '''jews'''<br /> |'''jeun''', '''jewn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''jak'''<br /> |'''jesk'''<br /> |'''jenk'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''jaebb'''<br /> |'''jaeps'''<br /> |'''jaemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''jaom'''<br /> |'''jaoms'''<br /> |'''jaom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''jaɛv'''<br /> |'''jaɛfs'''<br /> |'''janɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''jaøtr'''<br /> |'''jasøtr'''<br /> |'''jatrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> | - <br /> |'''jets'''<br /> |'''jent'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The pronoun agrees in number with the antecedent, but its case is determined by its function in the subordinate clause. Ex.:<br /> * '''tru grats jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;the boy (nom.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''na gratsa jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;the boy (accus.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''kʃu gratsu jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;to the boy (dat.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''kis gratsak jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;of the boy (gen.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''trø gratsøtr jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;by the boy (erg.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''tann gratsen jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;the boys (nom.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''ta gratsan jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;the boys (accus.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tun gratsun jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;to the boys (dat.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tak gratsken jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr gratsetrøn jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tru grats jaa kahettsa''' &quot;the boy (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''na gratsa jaa kahettsa''' &quot;the boy (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''kʃu gratsu jaa kahettsa''' &quot;to the boy (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''kis gratsak jaa kahettsa''' &quot;of the boy (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''trø gratsøtr jaa kahettsa''' &quot;by the boy (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tann gratsen jaan kahettsa''' &quot;the boys (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''ta gratsan jaan kahettsa''' &quot;the boys (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tun gratsun jaan kahettsa''' &quot;to the boys (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tak gratsken jaan kahettsa''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr gratsetrøn jaan kahettsa''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> <br /> Besides this pronoun, relative clauses may also be formed with participles. <br /> <br /> Ex.:<br /> <br /> * '''tru ateʃfanur grats''' &quot;the boy (nom.) who is running away&quot; <br /> * '''na ateʃfanur gratsa''' &quot;the boy (accus.) who is running away&quot; <br /> * '''tak ateʃfanur gratsken''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) who are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tru dɛtr kahettek grats''', '''tru grats dɛtr kahettek''' &quot;the boy (nom.) whom I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr dɛtr kahettek gratsetrøn''', '''tøtr gratsetrøn dɛtr kahettek''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) whom I saw&quot;<br /> <br /> == Verbs ==<br /> <br /> === Finite Forms ===<br /> <br /> Verbs in Dahur have different stems indicating aspect. The conjugation uses different sets of endings to indicate tense or time. <br /> <br /> The basic verb stems are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Aspect<br /> !Meaning<br /> !Form<br /> |-<br /> |Generic<br /> |''verbal idea without a specific context, time or aspect''<br /> |the basic stem of the verb<br /> |-<br /> |Cursive (Progressive; Continuous)<br /> |''action ongoing at the moment of reference<br /> |prefix '''a-''' and suffix '''-(a)n-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Aorist<br /> |''a complete or punctual action''<br /> |suffix '''-(e)tt-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Perfect<br /> |''the result of an action that happened before the reference time''<br /> |suffix '''-(l)l(a)-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Unrealised (Future)<br /> |''action as not realised in relation to the reference time''<br /> |prefix '''u-''' and suffix '''-(u)ʃ-''' <br /> |-<br /> |Conditional<br /> |''irrealis, usually an action depending on another''<br /> |prefix '''i-''' (doubling the initial consonant) and suffix '''-i-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Stem formation is often irregular. <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Generic<br /> !Cursive<br /> !Aorist<br /> !Perfect<br /> !Unrealised<br /> !Conditional <br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmal-'''<br /> |'''akʃmalan-'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalett-'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalla-'''<br /> |'''ukaʃmaluʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkaʃmali-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''la-'''<br /> |'''alan-'''<br /> |'''latt-'''<br /> |'''lalla-'''<br /> |'''ulauʃ-'''<br /> |'''illai-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''wennin''' &quot;live&quot; <br /> |'''wennin-'''<br /> |'''awann-'''<br /> |'''wennett-'''<br /> |'''wennilla-'''<br /> |'''uwenninʃ-'''<br /> |'''iwennini-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadra-'''<br /> |'''agandran-'''<br /> |'''gadrett-'''<br /> |'''gadralla-'''<br /> |'''ugadruʃ-'''<br /> |'''iggadri-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''tefʃiv''' &quot;flee&quot;<br /> |'''tefʃiv-'''<br /> |'''ateʃfan-'''<br /> |'''tefʃivett-'''<br /> |'''tefʃivla-'''<br /> |'''utefʃivuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittefʃivi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maʃkintɾod''' &quot;represent&quot;<br /> |'''maʃkintɾod-'''<br /> |'''amaʃkintɾon-'''<br /> |'''maʃkintɾott-'''<br /> |'''maʃkintɾolla-'''<br /> |'''umaʃkintɾotʃ-'''<br /> |'''immaʃkintɾodi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kajnaar''' &quot;jump&quot;<br /> |'''kajnaar-'''<br /> |'''akajnaan-'''<br /> |'''kajnerett-'''<br /> |'''kajnaalla-'''<br /> |'''ukajnaaruʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkajnaari-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys''' &quot;take care of&quot;<br /> |'''taldesyys-'''<br /> |'''ataldesyyn-'''<br /> |'''taldesyyst-'''<br /> |'''taldesyyll-'''<br /> |'''utaldesyyʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittaldesyysi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kota-'''<br /> |'''ankon-'''<br /> |'''kotatt-'''<br /> |'''kekolla-'''<br /> |'''ukotuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkoti-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussi-'''<br /> |'''ahsejn-'''<br /> |'''hust-'''<br /> |'''huzilla-'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ihusseji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''ken-''', '''kena-'''<br /> |'''angen-'''<br /> |'''kahett-'''<br /> |'''kenalla-''', '''kralla-'''<br /> |'''ukunuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkeni-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''mend''' &quot;become&quot;<br /> |'''mend-'''<br /> |'''amdan-'''<br /> |'''menett-'''<br /> |'''mendla-'''<br /> |'''umenduʃ-'''<br /> |'''immendi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustaj-''', '''ustaji-'''<br /> |'''anstajn-''', '''anstajin-'''<br /> |'''ustatt-''', '''ustitt-'''<br /> |'''ustalla-''', '''ustilla-'''<br /> |'''ustajuʃ-'''<br /> |'''istaji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''maj-'''<br /> |'''amann-'''<br /> |'''menett-'''<br /> |'''mjalla-'''<br /> |'''umujuʃ-'''<br /> |'''immaji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trak-'''<br /> |'''atrakan-'''<br /> |'''tetrakett-'''<br /> |'''ketralla-'''<br /> |'''utrakʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittraggi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''pakt''' &quot;understand&quot;<br /> |'''pakt-'''<br /> |'''ampakn-'''<br /> |'''pakett-'''<br /> |'''paktalla-'''<br /> |'''upaktuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ippakti-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''durʃin''' &quot;seem, appear&quot;<br /> |'''durʃin-'''<br /> |'''adurʃan-'''<br /> |'''durʃint-'''<br /> |'''durʃilla-'''<br /> |'''udurʃinʃ-'''<br /> |'''iddurʃini-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka''' &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |'''ʃaka-'''<br /> |'''aʃkan-'''<br /> |'''ʃakkatt-'''<br /> |'''ʃakalla-'''<br /> |'''uʃakkuʃ-'''<br /> |'''iʃakki-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kʃa''' [passive voice auxiliary]<br /> |'''kʃa-'''<br /> |'''akʃan-'''<br /> |'''kʃatt-'''<br /> |'''kʃalla-'''<br /> |'''ukʃuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkʃi-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The personal endings are : <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Present<br /> !Past<br /> !Future<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-sa'''<br /> |'''-os'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''-im'''<br /> |'''-mis'''<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''-ej'''<br /> |'''-jes'''<br /> |'''-oj'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''-ɔn'''<br /> |'''-sɔn'''<br /> |'''-on'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''-ib'''<br /> |'''-ips'''<br /> |'''-ob'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''-ɛw'''<br /> |'''-sɛw'''<br /> |'''-ow'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The following combinations of stem + ending set occur: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |Present<br /> |Past<br /> |Future<br /> |-<br /> |Generic<br /> !Simple <br /> Present<br /> !Habitual<br /> Past (&quot;used to&quot;)<br /> !Indefinite<br /> Future<br /> |-<br /> |Cursive<br /> !Present<br /> Continuous<br /> !Past <br /> Continuous<br /> !Future<br /> Progressive<br /> |-<br /> |Aorist<br /> |<br /> !Simple <br /> Past (Aorist)<br /> !Definite Future<br /> (Specific, Punctual)<br /> |-<br /> |Perfect<br /> !Present <br /> Perfect<br /> !Past<br /> Perfect<br /> !Future <br /> Perfect<br /> |-<br /> |Unrealised<br /> !Near <br /> Future<br /> !Unrealised <br /> Past (&quot;would&quot;)<br /> !Future <br /> (Remote) <br /> |-<br /> |Conditional <br /> !Conditional <br /> Present<br /> !Conditional <br /> Past<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> For the imperative, the base form of the verb is used. Optionally, the particle '''a''' can be used before the verb. Ex.: <br /> * '''Kaʃmal!''' / '''A kaʃmal!''' &quot;Take!&quot;<br /> * '''Hussi!''' / '''A hussi!''' &quot;Listen!&quot;<br /> * '''Spa kajnaar!''' / '''A spa kajnaar!''' &quot;Don't jump!&quot;<br /> <br /> While the formation of aspect stems is often irregular, the combination of stem + endings is usually quite regular and predictable. The usual epenthetic phonemes occur, mostly the semivowels ('''j''' and '''w'''), when two vowels come together, but these are more an artifact of speech and aren't usually indicated in writing. Ex.: <br /> * '''kaʃmallaus''', '''kaʃmallawus''' <br /> * '''kaʃmallaim''', '''kaʃmallajim''' <br /> * '''kaʃmallaej''', '''kaʃmallajej''', '''kaʃmallahej'''<br /> * '''kaʃmallaɔn''', '''kaʃmallawɔn''' <br /> * '''iggadriips''', '''iggadrijips'''<br /> * '''iggadrius''', '''iggadrijus'''<br /> * &amp;c.<br /> <br /> ==== Negative ====<br /> <br /> The infix '''-(i)nd-''', placed before the personal endings, makes a verb negative. Ex.: <br /> * '''landus''' &quot;I am not&quot;<br /> * '''lattindsɛw''' &quot;they weren't&quot;<br /> * '''hussindoj''' &quot;he/she won't listen&quot;<br /> * '''ateʃfanindips''' &quot;you weren't running away&quot;<br /> <br /> The emphatic negative particle '''spa''' may be used before the verb, always in the negative form. Ex.: <br /> * '''spa landus''' &quot;I am most certainly not&quot;<br /> * '''spa lattindsɛw''' &quot;they definitely weren't&quot;<br /> * '''spa hussindoj''' &quot;he/she will not listen at all&quot;<br /> * '''spa ateʃfanindips''' &quot;you really weren't running away&quot;<br /> <br /> This particle '''spa''' is also used in a negative command, with the base form of the verb. In that case, it doesn't necessarily have an emphatic meaning. Ex.: <br /> * '''Spa hussi!''' / '''A spa hussi!''' &quot;Don't listen!&quot;<br /> <br /> === Nominal Forms ===<br /> <br /> ==== Infinitive ==== <br /> <br /> The Dahur verb has infinitives for the Generic, Cursive, Aorist, Perfect and Unrealised aspects. They are formed by adding the ending '''-eh''' to the corresponding stem. The prefix '''u-''' of the Unrealised aspect is optional in the infinitive. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Generic<br /> !Cursive<br /> !Aorist<br /> !Perfect<br /> !Unrealised<br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmaleh'''<br /> |'''akʃmalaneh'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaletteh'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaeh'''<br /> |'''ukaʃmaluʃeh''', '''kaʃmaluʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''laeh'''<br /> |'''alaneh'''<br /> |'''latteh'''<br /> |'''lallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)lauʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadraeh'''<br /> |'''agandraneh'''<br /> |'''gadretteh'''<br /> |'''gadrallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)gadruʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kotaeh'''<br /> |'''ankoneh'''<br /> |'''kotatteh'''<br /> |'''kekollaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)kotuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussieh'''<br /> |'''ahsejneh'''<br /> |'''husteh'''<br /> |'''huzillaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)hussuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''keneh'''<br /> |'''angeneh'''<br /> |'''kahetteh'''<br /> |'''kenallaeh''', '''krallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)kunuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustajeh'''<br /> |'''anstajneh'''<br /> |'''ustatteh''', '''ustitteh'''<br /> |'''ustallaeh''', '''ustillaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)stajuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''majeh'''<br /> |'''amanneh'''<br /> |'''menetteh'''<br /> |'''mjallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)mujuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trakeh'''<br /> |'''atrakaneh'''<br /> |'''tetraketteh'''<br /> |'''ketrallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)trakʃeh'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The infinitive may be used as a noun, but also with certain auxiliary verbs. When a participle is used as a noun, usually the definite article may be omitted. Ex.: <br /> <br /> *'''(Tru) kotaeh laej suwani.''' / '''(Tru) kotaeh suwanjaej.''' &quot;Eating is good.&quot;<br /> <br /> ==== Participle ====<br /> Participles are built by adding specific suffixes to the corresponding stems of the verb: <br /> * '''-ur''' (active participle)<br /> * '''-ek''' (passive participle)<br /> <br /> The prefix '''u-''' of the unrealised stem is dropped.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Generic<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Cursive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Aorist<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmalur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalek'''<br /> |'''akʃmalanur'''<br /> |'''akʃmalanek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalettur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalettek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaur''', '''kaʃmallur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaek''', '''kaʃmallek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaluʃur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaluʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''laur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''alanur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lattur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lallaur''', '''lallur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lauʃur'''<br /> | <br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadraur'''<br /> |'''gadraek'''<br /> |'''agandranur'''<br /> |'''agandranek'''<br /> |'''gadrettur'''<br /> |'''gadrettek'''<br /> |'''gadrallur'''<br /> |'''gadrallek'''<br /> |'''gadruʃur'''<br /> |'''gadruʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kotaur'''<br /> |'''kotaek'''<br /> |'''ankonur'''<br /> |'''ankonek'''<br /> |'''kotattur'''<br /> |'''kotattek'''<br /> |'''kekollur'''<br /> |'''kekollek'''<br /> |'''kotuʃur'''<br /> |'''kotuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussiur'''<br /> |'''hussiek'''<br /> |'''ahsejnur'''<br /> |'''ahsejnek'''<br /> |'''hustur'''<br /> |'''hustek'''<br /> |'''huzillaur'''<br /> |'''huzillaek'''<br /> |'''hussuʃur'''<br /> |'''hussuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''kenur'''<br /> |'''kenek'''<br /> |'''angenur'''<br /> |'''angenek'''<br /> |'''kahettur'''<br /> |'''kahettek'''<br /> |'''kenallur''', '''krallur'''<br /> |'''kenallek''', '''krallek'''<br /> |'''kunuʃur'''<br /> |'''kunuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustajur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''anstajnur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustattur''', '''ustittur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustallur''', '''ustillek'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustajuʃur'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''majur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''amannur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''menettur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''mjallur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''mujuʃur'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trakur'''<br /> |'''trakek'''<br /> |'''atrakanur'''<br /> |'''atrakanek'''<br /> |'''tetrakettur'''<br /> |'''tetrakettek'''<br /> |'''ketrallur'''<br /> |'''ketrallek'''<br /> |'''trakʃur'''<br /> |'''trakʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka''' &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |'''ʃakaur'''<br /> |'''ʃakaek'''<br /> |'''aʃkanur'''<br /> |'''aʃkanek'''<br /> |'''ʃakkattur'''<br /> |'''ʃakkattek'''<br /> |'''ʃakallur'''<br /> |'''ʃakallek'''<br /> |'''ʃakkuʃur'''<br /> |'''ʃakkuʃek'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The corresponding negative versions of these participles are formed regularly with the suffix '''-(i)nd-'''. Ex.:<br /> * '''landur''' &quot;not being&quot;<br /> * '''angenindur''' &quot;not seeing&quot;<br /> * '''gradrettindek''' &quot;not written&quot;<br /> * '''ketrallindur''' &quot;who/which had not done&quot;<br /> * '''aʃkanindek''' &quot;which isn't being hunted&quot;<br /> <br /> === Passive Voice ===<br /> <br /> The passive voice is built with the auxiliary '''kʃa''', conjugated regularly, followed by the base form of the verb. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''akʃanus taldesyys''' &quot;I'm being taken care of&quot;<br /> * '''akʃanindmis ken''' &quot;you were not being seen&quot;<br /> * '''kʃallaɔn kaʃmal''' &quot;we have been taken&quot;<br /> * '''kʃattsɛw kota''' &quot;they were eaten&quot;<br /> * '''ikkʃindej trak''' &quot;if it's not done&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> === Conjugation ===<br /> Next you have a few verbs, conjugated in all its forms.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|Verb '''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Present<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Continuous <br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Perfect <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Near Future <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Present <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''laus'''<br /> |'''landus'''<br /> |'''alanus'''<br /> |'''alanindus'''<br /> |'''lallaus'''<br /> |'''lallandus'''<br /> |'''ulauʃus'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindus'''<br /> |'''illaius'''<br /> |'''illaindus'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''laim'''<br /> |'''landim'''<br /> |'''alanim'''<br /> |'''alanindim'''<br /> |'''lallaim'''<br /> |'''lallandim'''<br /> |'''ulauʃim'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindim'''<br /> |'''illaiim'''<br /> |'''illaindim'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''laej'''<br /> |'''landej'''<br /> |'''alanej'''<br /> |'''alanindej'''<br /> |'''lallaej'''<br /> |'''lallandej'''<br /> |'''ulauʃej'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindej'''<br /> |'''illaiej'''<br /> |'''illaindej'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''laɔn'''<br /> |'''landɔn'''<br /> |'''alanɔn'''<br /> |'''alanindɔn'''<br /> |'''lallaɔn'''<br /> |'''lallandɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindɔn'''<br /> |'''illaiɔn'''<br /> |'''illaindɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laib'''<br /> |'''landib'''<br /> |'''alanib'''<br /> |'''alanindib'''<br /> |'''lallaib'''<br /> |'''lallandib'''<br /> |'''ulauʃib'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindib'''<br /> |'''illaiib'''<br /> |'''illaindib'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''laɛw'''<br /> |'''landɛw'''<br /> |'''alanɛw'''<br /> |'''alanindɛw'''<br /> |'''lallaɛw'''<br /> |'''lallandɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindɛw'''<br /> |'''illaiɛw'''<br /> |'''illaindɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Habitual Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Continuous <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Past <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Past <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''lasa'''<br /> |'''landsa'''<br /> |'''alansa'''<br /> |'''alanindsa'''<br /> |'''lattsa'''<br /> |'''lattindsa'''<br /> |'''lallasa'''<br /> |'''lallandsa'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsa'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsa'''<br /> |'''illaisa'''<br /> |'''illaindsa'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''lamis'''<br /> |'''landmis'''<br /> |'''alanmis'''<br /> |'''alanindmis'''<br /> |'''lattmis'''<br /> |'''lattindmis'''<br /> |'''lallamis'''<br /> |'''lallandmis'''<br /> |'''ulauʃmis'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindmis'''<br /> |'''illaimis'''<br /> |'''illaindmis'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''lajes'''<br /> |'''landjes'''<br /> |'''alanjes'''<br /> |'''alanindjes'''<br /> |'''lattjes'''<br /> |'''lattindjes'''<br /> |'''lallajes'''<br /> |'''lallandjes'''<br /> |'''ulauʃjes'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindjes'''<br /> |'''illaijes'''<br /> |'''illaindjes'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''lasɔn'''<br /> |'''landsɔn'''<br /> |'''alansɔn'''<br /> |'''alanindsɔn'''<br /> |'''lattsɔn'''<br /> |'''lattindsɔn'''<br /> |'''lallasɔn'''<br /> |'''lallandsɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsɔn'''<br /> |'''illaisɔn'''<br /> |'''illaiindsɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laips'''<br /> |'''landips'''<br /> |'''alanips'''<br /> |'''alanindips'''<br /> |'''lattips'''<br /> |'''lattindips'''<br /> |'''lallaips'''<br /> |'''lallandips'''<br /> |'''ulauʃips'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindips'''<br /> |'''illaiips'''<br /> |'''illaindips'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''lasɛw'''<br /> |'''landsɛw'''<br /> |'''alansɛw'''<br /> |'''alanindsɛw'''<br /> |'''lattsɛw'''<br /> |'''lattindsɛw'''<br /> |'''lallasɛw'''<br /> |'''lallandsɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsɛw'''<br /> |'''illaisɛw'''<br /> |'''illaindsɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Indefinite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Progressive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Definite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Remote Future<br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''laos'''<br /> |'''landos'''<br /> |'''alanos'''<br /> |'''alanindos'''<br /> |'''lattos'''<br /> |'''lattindos'''<br /> |'''lallaos'''<br /> |'''lallandos'''<br /> |'''ulauʃos'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindos'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''laom'''<br /> |'''landom'''<br /> |'''alanom'''<br /> |'''alanindom'''<br /> |'''lattom'''<br /> |'''lattindom'''<br /> |'''lallaom'''<br /> |'''lallandom'''<br /> |'''ulauʃom'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindom'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''laoj'''<br /> |'''landoj'''<br /> |'''alanoj'''<br /> |'''alanindoj'''<br /> |'''lattoj'''<br /> |'''lattindoj'''<br /> |'''lallaoj'''<br /> |'''lallandoj'''<br /> |'''ulauʃoj'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindoj'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''laon'''<br /> |'''landon'''<br /> |'''alanon'''<br /> |'''alanindon'''<br /> |'''latton'''<br /> |'''lattindon'''<br /> |'''lallaon'''<br /> |'''lallandon'''<br /> |'''ulauʃon'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindon'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laob'''<br /> |'''landob'''<br /> |'''alanob'''<br /> |'''alanindob'''<br /> |'''lattob'''<br /> |'''lattindob'''<br /> |'''lallaob'''<br /> |'''lallandob'''<br /> |'''ulauʃob'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindob'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''laow'''<br /> |'''landow'''<br /> |'''alanow'''<br /> |'''alanindow'''<br /> |'''lattow'''<br /> |'''lattindow'''<br /> |'''lallaow'''<br /> |'''lallandow'''<br /> |'''ulauʃow'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindow'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|Verb '''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Present<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Continuous <br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Perfect <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Near Future <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Present <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussius'''<br /> |'''hussindus'''<br /> |'''ahsejnus'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindus'''<br /> |'''huzillaus'''<br /> |'''huzillandus'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃus'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindus'''<br /> |'''ihussejius'''<br /> |'''ihussejindus'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussiim'''<br /> |'''hussindim'''<br /> |'''ahsejnim'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindim'''<br /> |'''huzillaim'''<br /> |'''huzillandim'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃim'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindim'''<br /> |'''ihussejiim'''<br /> |'''ihussejindim'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussije'''<br /> |'''hussindje'''<br /> |'''ahsejnje'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindje'''<br /> |'''huzillaje'''<br /> |'''huzillandje'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃje'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindje'''<br /> |'''ihussejije'''<br /> |'''ihussejindje'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussiɔn'''<br /> |'''hussindɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillaɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillandɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejiɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejindɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiib'''<br /> |'''hussindib'''<br /> |'''ahsejnib'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindib'''<br /> |'''huzillaib'''<br /> |'''huzillandib'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃib'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindib'''<br /> |'''ihussejiib'''<br /> |'''ihussejindib'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussiɛw'''<br /> |'''hussindɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillaɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillandɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejiɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejindɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Habitual Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Continuous <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Past <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Past <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussisa'''<br /> |'''hussindsa'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsa'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsa'''<br /> |'''hustsa'''<br /> |'''hustindsa'''<br /> |'''huzillasa'''<br /> |'''huzillandsa'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsa'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsa'''<br /> |'''ihussejisa'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsa'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussimis'''<br /> |'''hussindmis'''<br /> |'''ahsejnmis'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindmis'''<br /> |'''hustmis'''<br /> |'''hustindmis'''<br /> |'''huzillamis'''<br /> |'''huzillandmis'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃmis'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindmis'''<br /> |'''ihussejimis'''<br /> |'''ihussejindmis'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussijes'''<br /> |'''hussindjes'''<br /> |'''ahsejnjes'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindjes'''<br /> |'''hustjes'''<br /> |'''hustindjes'''<br /> |'''huzillajes'''<br /> |'''huzillandjes'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃjes'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindjes'''<br /> |'''ihussejijes'''<br /> |'''ihussejindjes'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussisɔn'''<br /> |'''hussindsɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsɔn'''<br /> |'''hustsɔn'''<br /> |'''hustindsɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillasɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillandsɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejisɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiips'''<br /> |'''hussindips'''<br /> |'''ahsejnips'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindips'''<br /> |'''hustips'''<br /> |'''hustindips'''<br /> |'''huzillaips'''<br /> |'''huzillandips'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃips'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindips'''<br /> |'''ihussejiips'''<br /> |'''ihussejindips'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussisɛw'''<br /> |'''hussindsɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsɛw'''<br /> |'''hustsɛw'''<br /> |'''hustindsɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillasɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillandsɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejisɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Indefinite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Progressive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Definite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Remote Future<br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussios'''<br /> |'''hussindos'''<br /> |'''ahsejnos'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindos'''<br /> |'''hustos'''<br /> |'''hustindos'''<br /> |'''huzillaos'''<br /> |'''huzillandos'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃos'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindos'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussiom'''<br /> |'''hussindom'''<br /> |'''ahsejnom'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindom'''<br /> |'''hustom'''<br /> |'''hustindom'''<br /> |'''huzillaom'''<br /> |'''huzillandom'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃom'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindom'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussioj'''<br /> |'''hussindoj'''<br /> |'''ahsejnoj'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindoj'''<br /> |'''hustoj'''<br /> |'''hustindoj'''<br /> |'''huzillaoj'''<br /> |'''huzillandoj'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃoj'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindoj'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussion'''<br /> |'''hussindon'''<br /> |'''ahsejnon'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindon'''<br /> |'''huston'''<br /> |'''hustindon'''<br /> |'''huzillaon'''<br /> |'''huzillandon'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃon'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindon'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiob'''<br /> |'''hussindob'''<br /> |'''ahsejnob'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindob'''<br /> |'''hustob'''<br /> |'''hustindob'''<br /> |'''huzillaob'''<br /> |'''huzillandob'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃob'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindob'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussiow'''<br /> |'''hussindow'''<br /> |'''ahsejnow'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindow'''<br /> |'''hustow'''<br /> |'''hustindow'''<br /> |'''huzillaow'''<br /> |'''huzillandow'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃow'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindow'''<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Incorporation ===<br /> Besides complementing a verb with a noun phrase in the accusative (or some other) case, complements may be incorporated in the verb. This resource is particularly common with more frequent verb + complement combinations. Common verbs, especially indicating more fundamental actions such as &quot;eat&quot;, &quot;drink&quot;, &quot;take&quot;, &quot;speak&quot;, &quot;make&quot;, &quot;kill&quot; &amp;c. are more prone to this type of constructions, while more abstract verbs, as well as less frequently used verbs, tend to follow the more conventional verb + complement approach. <br /> <br /> When a complement is incorporated to a verb, it receives the prefix '''s-''' and is placed before the verb root. Irregularities are not uncommon. <br /> Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Regular Construction<br /> !Incorporation<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota ʃøga'''<br /> |'''sʃøgkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat meat&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota dabasa'''<br /> |'''sdabaskota'''<br /> |&quot;eat bread&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota drupala'''<br /> |'''sdrupalkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat vegetables&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota pinim'''<br /> |'''spinimkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat fruit&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''twiʃin halajna'''<br /> |'''shalantwiʃin'''<br /> |&quot;drink water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''twiʃin myndra'''<br /> |'''smyndtwiʃin'''<br /> |&quot;drink alcoholic beverage&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys menira'''<br /> |'''smeniraldesyys'''<br /> |&quot;take care of a child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys apsala'''<br /> |'''sapsaldesyys'''<br /> |&quot;take care of everything&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi tuglaa'''<br /> |'''stuglussi'''<br /> |&quot;hear a noise&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka pœrakʃa'''<br /> |'''spœrakʃaka'''<br /> |&quot;hunt a beast&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak tilmara'''<br /> |'''stilmatrak'''<br /> |&quot;make a mistake&quot;<br /> |}</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Conlangs/Dahur&diff=5379 Conlangs/Dahur 2026-09-13T01:43:31Z <p>Panglossa: /* Predicative Adjectives */</p> <hr /> <div>{{DISPLAYTITLE:Dahur}}<br /> {{RightTOC}}<br /> =Phonology=<br /> <br /> ==Vowels==<br /> <br /> Dahur vowels are usually short. Double vowels (ex.: aa, ee &amp;c.) may happen, but they are considered as simple vowel sequences.<br /> <br /> The following vowels qualities are distinguished: <br /> <br /> '''a''' '''e''' '''ɛ''' '''i''' '''o''' '''ɔ''' '''ø''' '''œ''' '''u''' '''y'''<br /> <br /> The diagram below shows the 10 vowels of Dahur.<br /> <br /> [[File:dahurvowels.png|link=]]<br /> <br /> In practice, the vowel /a/ may actually vary between /a/, /ä/ and /ɑ/.<br /> <br /> Merging of /ø/ and /œ/ is fairly common, especially in more informal contexts, as these two vowels mostly don't occur as minimal pair (except in a couple cases).<br /> <br /> ==Consonants==<br /> <br /> Dahur consonants are as follows: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;border-width:0px&quot;|<br /> !Bilabial<br /> !Labiodental<br /> !Alveolar<br /> !Postalveolar<br /> !Palatal<br /> !Velar<br /> !Glottal<br /> |-<br /> !Nasal<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''m'''<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''n'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Plosive<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''p''' '''b'''<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''t''' '''d'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''k''' '''g'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Sibilant fricative<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''s''' '''z'''<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''ʃ''' '''ʒ''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Non-sibilant fricative<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''f''' '''v''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''h'''<br /> |-<br /> !Approximant<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''j'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Tap/Flap/Trill<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''ɾ''' '''r''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Lateral Approx.<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''l'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The rhotic consonant ('''r''') is in free variation and may be realised either as a tap, a flap or a trill. The trill pronunciation (/r/) is more common at the beginning of a syllable, and even more so at the beginning of a word. The tap/flap pronunciation (/ɾ/) is more common in consonant clusters, especially after a plosive. <br /> <br /> In Dahur phonology, the combinations '''tr''' and '''kʃ''' count as single, independent consonants.<br /> <br /> ==Phonotactics==<br /> A syllable in Dahur must contain one vowel, which may be preceded and/or followed by any number of consonants. In practice, consonant clusters don't usually go beyond four consonants. For that account, '''kʃ''' and '''tɾ''' are always considered as single consonants. <br /> <br /> All consonant sequences are possible. However, in practice, some consonant combinations (ex. '''-hm-''', '''-tɾkʃ-''' &amp;c.) are rare.<br /> <br /> Some studies consider the existence of a glottal stop when a proper consonant is absent. This view is reflected in the writing, which has a special sign for the glottal stop / lack of a consonant. The last consonant of a syllable can be doubled. <br /> <br /> Examples of valid syllables: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''a'''<br /> | '''tɛ'''<br /> | '''en'''<br /> | '''wi'''<br /> | '''koj'''<br /> | '''gjɔ'''<br /> | '''pɾujn'''<br /> | '''kʃtɾa'''<br /> | '''fʃtlœmbz'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Stress==<br /> In the standard pronunciation, words are stressed on the next-to-last syllable. However, if the last syllable contains the consonant /tɾ/, it will be stressed.<br /> <br /> Ex.:<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''&lt;u&gt;ka&lt;/u&gt;nar''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/ˈka.nar/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''os&lt;u&gt;trøn&lt;/u&gt;dɛl''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/os.ˈtɾøn.dɛl/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''&lt;u&gt;tef&lt;/u&gt;ʃiv''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/ˈtef.ʃiv/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''da&lt;u&gt;sutɾ&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/daˈsutɾ/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''maʃkin&lt;u&gt;tɾod&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/maʃ.kinˈtɾod/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Doubled vowels in the last syllable may sound as a long, stressed vowel; however, they are actually two separate vowels, each one in a different syllable, with stress falling on the first one (or on the last, in case that syllable contains the consonant '''tr'''). It is not uncommon to hear an epenthetic '''h''', '''j''' or '''w''' between the two vowels.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kaj&lt;u&gt;na&lt;/u&gt;ar''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/kaj.ˈna.ar/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/kaj.ˈna.har/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> | '''pakisa&lt;u&gt;atr&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/pa.ki.sa.ˈatr/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/pa.ki.sa.ˈhatr/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> | '''tøndel&lt;u&gt;li&lt;/u&gt;in''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.in/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.jin/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.hin/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''talde&lt;u&gt;sy&lt;/u&gt;ys''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tal.de.ˈsy.ys/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tal.de.ˈsy.hys/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =Writing=<br /> <br /> [[Dahur script]] consists in an alphasyllabary consisting in separate letters indicating consonants, a combination of separate letters and diacritics to indicate vowels, as well as certain special letters for individual syllables.<br /> <br /> =Morphology=<br /> <br /> Dahur is a highly flexional language, with a strong presence of irregular forms.<br /> <br /> Nouns inflect for number, which is basically singular and plural, but there are also occurrences of dual (for things normally occurring in pairs) and singulative (for individual items of things usually found collectively). <br /> <br /> Nouns also inflect for case, usually: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, locative, instrumental, ergative and ablative. Instances of partitive and vocative are also found. The case called ergative is used basically for the agent of the passive voice.<br /> <br /> Adjectives show no agreement to nouns, and inflect for degree (comparatives of superiority, equality, inferiority; relative and absolute superlative).<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Nouns==<br /> <br /> <br /> === Class ===<br /> <br /> Dahurian nouns are divided in five classes, which can be compared to Latin or Greek declensions, as they consist in different inflection patterns, but may also be seen as a form of gender, as class is usually (but not always necessarily) related to the meaning of a noun. <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class 1<br /> |Living beings<br /> |-<br /> !Class 2<br /> |General objects<br /> |-<br /> !Class 3<br /> |Natural elements; insects<br /> |-<br /> !Class 4<br /> |Parts of human body; clothing<br /> |-<br /> !Class 5<br /> |Abstract nouns; traditional imaginary beings<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There are no morphological indications related to noun classes in the nominative singular. The differences appear along the inflection of nouns.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Number ===<br /> Nouns in Dahur have a singular and a plural. The plural ending varies according to noun class and to case. There is also a dual number, which is valid only for nouns normally occurring in pairs. Mass or collective nouns have a singulative inflection, but this is not very systematically indicated.<br /> <br /> <br /> So, for example:<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> !Dual<br /> !Singulative<br /> |-<br /> |class 1<br /> |'''grats'''<br /> &quot;boy&quot;<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> &quot;boys&quot;<br /> | -<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 2<br /> |'''kɛʃev'''<br /> &quot;hammer&quot;<br /> |'''kɛʃevlin'''<br /> &quot;hammers&quot;<br /> |'''kɛʃevs'''<br /> &quot;pair of hammers&quot; (traditionally used by blacksmiths)<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 3<br /> |'''halajn'''<br /> &quot;water&quot;<br /> |'''halejnn'''<br /> &quot;waters&quot; (i.e. in a flood)<br /> |'''halajns'''<br /> &quot;The Two Waters&quot; (the river Okanuma and the lake Kassanjas)<br /> |'''halajny'''<br /> &quot;a drop of water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |class 4<br /> |'''kanar'''<br /> &quot;eye&quot;<br /> |'''kanarni'''<br /> &quot;many eyes&quot; (mostly figuratively)<br /> |'''kanaris'''<br /> &quot;(two/both) eyes&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 4<br /> |'''kʃalim'''<br /> &quot;hair&quot;<br /> |'''kʃalimni'''<br /> &quot;(types of) hair&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |'''kʃalimy'''<br /> &quot;a (single) hair&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |class 5<br /> |'''astrønɛl'''<br /> &quot;idea&quot;<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> &quot;ideas&quot;<br /> |'''astrønɛls'''<br /> &quot;a couple ideas&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The plural in classes 1, 2 and 5 is usually regular, obtained with the respective suffixes ('''-en''', '''-lin''', '''-jan'''). <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 1<br /> |'''katlaj'''<br /> &quot;girlfriend&quot;<br /> |'''katlajen'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''dukʃatr'''<br /> &quot;boss&quot;<br /> |'''dukʃatren'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''egastɛv'''<br /> &quot;farmer&quot;<br /> |'''egastɛven'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 2<br /> |'''takoj'''<br /> &quot;pin&quot;<br /> |'''takojlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''uhpsan'''<br /> &quot;paper&quot;<br /> |'''uhpsanlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''dasutr'''<br /> &quot;document, file&quot;<br /> |'''dasutrlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 5<br /> |'''pɛktegal'''<br /> &quot;angel&quot;<br /> |'''pɛktegaljan'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ostrøndɛl'''<br /> &quot;interruption&quot;<br /> |'''ostrøndɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''piktaraʃ'''<br /> &quot;problem&quot;<br /> |'''piktaraʃjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In classes 3 and 4, besides the suffixes ('''-n''', '''-ni'''), most nouns suffer some sort of mutation, usually affecting only one vowel but non uncommonly consisting of more significative changes.<br /> <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 3<br /> |'''pakpaki'''<br /> &quot;louse&quot;<br /> |'''pakpɛkin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''pahalis'''<br /> &quot;leaf&quot;<br /> |'''pahaljen'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''tʃeptal'''<br /> &quot;cloud&quot;<br /> |'''tʃapatlin''', '''tʃaptlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 4<br /> |'''kraus'''<br /> &quot;ear&quot;<br /> |'''krojsni'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ɛmblew'''<br /> &quot;hat&quot;<br /> |'''ɛmbalni'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''krikter'''<br /> &quot;helmet&quot;<br /> |'''kruktni'''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Case ===<br /> Dahur nouns inflect for the following cases: <br /> * '''nominative''' (subject, predicative)<br /> * '''accusative''' (direct object, motion towards)<br /> * '''dative''' (indirect object)<br /> * '''genitive''' (possession, partitive, origin)<br /> * '''locative''' (location, placement)<br /> * '''instrumental''' (instrument, means, company)<br /> * '''ablative''' (adverbial)<br /> * '''ergative''' (agent of the passive voice)<br /> <br /> All cases except the nominative and the ergative can be used with prepositions.<br /> <br /> Certain nouns, mostly nouns indicating human beings, also show a vocative form, mostly formed with the ending '''-e''', but usually irregular. <br /> <br /> Certain nouns, for example nouns indicating mass or food, show a partitive case, usually formed with the ending '''-(i)t'''. <br /> <br /> <br /> === Inflection ===<br /> <br /> Noun declension in Dahur is quite regular, in terms of case and the less usual numbers, viz. the dual and the singulative.<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 1<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 2<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 3<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 4<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 5<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''-'''<br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-en'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-lin'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-n'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-is'''<br /> |'''-ni'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-an'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-lajn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-an'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-jas'''<br /> |'''-nja'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-un'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-lun'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-wan'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-ujs'''<br /> |'''-nu'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-ujn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''-ak'''<br /> |'''-ask'''<br /> |'''-ken'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ik'''<br /> |'''-isk'''<br /> |'''-link'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-aʃ'''<br /> |'''-ʃas'''<br /> |'''-ʃan'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-iʃ'''<br /> |'''-siʃ'''<br /> |'''-niʃ'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ik'''<br /> |'''-isk'''<br /> |'''-jank'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-emb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-limb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-emb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-bis'''<br /> |'''-nibb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-jamb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-nom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-lom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-nom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-joms'''<br /> |'''-njom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-njom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-nɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-lɛnv''', '''-lɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-nɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-jɛfs'''<br /> |'''-njɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-njɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-løtr'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-sjøtr'''<br /> |'''-trøjn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøjn'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> &lt;!---<br /> * The '''nominative''' case is the basic form of nouns.<br /> * The '''accusative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-a'''. <br /> * The '''dative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-si'''.<br /> * The '''genitive''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ak''' for animate intelligent beings, '''-iʃ''' for animals, '''-is''' for concrete objects and '''-ɔn''' for abstract things.<br /> * The '''locative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-us'''. With animate nouns, the locative can mean &quot;on&quot;, or &quot;with&quot;, as in &quot;carrying with&quot;. <br /> * The '''instrumental''' case is indicated by the enging '''-em''' for animate intelligent beings, '''-om''' for animals, '''-um''' for things.<br /> * The '''ergative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-øtr'''. <br /> * The '''ablative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ɛv'''. <br /> --&gt;<br /> <br /> When an ending starting with a vowel is applied, a final '''-i''' becomes '''-j-''', and a final '''-u''' becomes '''-w-'''; otherwise, an '''-h-''' is added. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''dula''' &quot;babysitter&quot;, '''dulahen''' &quot;babysitters&quot;<br /> * '''agdari''' &quot;prisoner&quot;, '''agdarjen''' &quot;prisoners&quot;<br /> * '''pakpaki''' &quot;louse&quot;, '''pakpakja''' &quot;louse (accus.)&quot;, '''pakpakjaʃ''' &quot;of a louse&quot;, '''pakpakjom''' &quot;by a louse&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> In the following tables, you have some examples of nouns of the various classes, fully inflected for number and case.<br /> <br /> * Class 1: '''grats''' &quot;boy&quot; <br /> * Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' &quot;hammer&quot; <br /> * Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' &quot;cloud&quot; <br /> * Class 4: '''kraus''' &quot;ear&quot; <br /> * Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' &quot;idea&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 1: '''grats''' &quot;boy&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''grats'''<br /> |'''gratss'''<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''gratsa'''<br /> |'''gratsas'''<br /> |'''gratsan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''gratsu'''<br /> |'''gratsus'''<br /> |'''gratsun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''gratsak'''<br /> |'''gratsask'''<br /> |'''gratsken'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''gratsebb'''<br /> |'''gratseps'''<br /> |'''gratsemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''gratsom'''<br /> |'''gratsoms'''<br /> |'''gratsnom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''gratsɛv'''<br /> |'''gratsɛfs'''<br /> |'''gratsnɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''gratsøtr'''<br /> |'''gratssøtr'''<br /> |'''gratsetrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Vocative<br /> |'''gratse'''<br /> |'''gratses'''<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' &quot;hammer&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''kɛʃev'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevs'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlin'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''kɛʃeva'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevas'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlajn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''kɛʃevu'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevus'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''kɛʃevik'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevisk'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlink'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''kɛʃevebb'''<br /> |'''kɛʃeveps'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlimb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''kɛʃevom'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevoms'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''kɛʃevɛv'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevɛfs'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlɛnv''', '''kɛʃevlɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''kɛʃevøtr'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevsøtr'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevløtr'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' &quot;cloud&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''tʃeptal'''<br /> |'''tʃeptals'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlin'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''tʃeptala'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalas'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlijan''', '''tʃaptljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''tʃeptalu'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalus'''<br /> |'''tʃaptliwan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''tʃeptalaʃ'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalʃas'''<br /> |'''tʃaptliʃan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''tʃeptalebb'''<br /> |'''tʃeptaleps'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlijemb''', '''tʃaptljemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''tʃeptalom'''<br /> |'''tʃeptaloms'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlinom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''tʃeptalɛv'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalɛfs'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlinɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''tʃeptaløtr'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalsøtr'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlitrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''tʃeptalt'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalts'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlint'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 4: '''kraus''' &quot;ear&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''kraus'''<br /> |'''krausis'''<br /> |'''krojsni'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''krausa'''<br /> |'''krausjas'''<br /> |'''krojsnja'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''krausu'''<br /> |'''krausujs'''<br /> |'''krojsnu'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''krausiʃ'''<br /> |'''kraussiʃ'''<br /> |'''krojsniʃ'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''krausebb'''<br /> |'''krauseps'''<br /> |'''krojsnibb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''krausom'''<br /> |'''krausoms'''<br /> |'''krojsnjom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''krausɛv'''<br /> |'''krausɛfs'''<br /> |'''krojsnjɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''krausøtr'''<br /> |'''krausjøtr'''<br /> |'''krojstrøjn'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' &quot;idea&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''astrønɛls'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''astrønɛla'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlas'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''astrønɛlu'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlus'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlujn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''astrønɛlik'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlisk'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljank'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''astrønɛlebb'''<br /> |'''astrønɛleps'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljamb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''astrønɛlom'''<br /> |'''astrønɛloms'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlnjom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''astrønɛlɛv'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlɛfs'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlnjɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''astrønɛløtr'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlsøtr'''<br /> |'''astrønɛltrøjn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''astrønɛlt'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlts'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljant'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Articles ==<br /> <br /> === Definite Article === <br /> <br /> The definite article inflects for case and number, and is quite irregular. <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> !Singulative <br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''tru'''<br /> |'''gas'''<br /> |'''tann'''<br /> |'''try'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''na'''<br /> |'''ga'''<br /> |'''ta'''<br /> |'''ny'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''kʃu'''<br /> |'''gu'''<br /> |'''tun'''<br /> |'''kʃu'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''kis'''<br /> |'''gak'''<br /> |'''tak'''<br /> |'''kis'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''debb'''<br /> |'''gebb'''<br /> |'''tebb'''<br /> |'''debb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''trom'''<br /> |'''gom'''<br /> |'''tom'''<br /> |'''trom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative <br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |'''gɛv'''<br /> |'''tɛv'''<br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''trø'''<br /> |'''gøtr'''<br /> |'''tøtr'''<br /> |'''trø'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Indefinite Article === <br /> <br /> Dahur has no proper indefinite article. <br /> <br /> If it's really necessary to mark a noun phrase as indefinite, an indefinite pronoun may be used. The most common is '''lum''' (invariable), meaning &quot;some&quot;, &quot;a certain&quot; &amp;c.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Prepositions ==<br /> <br /> Prepositions in Dahur require the noun in one of the following cases: <br /> <br /> * accusative<br /> * dative<br /> * genitive<br /> * ablative<br /> * instrumental<br /> * locative<br /> <br /> The nominative and the ergative are '''never''' used with prepositions. <br /> <br /> In the table below you have the most common Dahur prepositions: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Preposition<br /> !Case<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''dun'''<br /> |''locative'', ''accusative of movement''<br /> |inside<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''yin'''<br /> |''dative''<br /> |for, in behalf of<br /> |-<br /> |''accusative''<br /> |towards<br /> |-<br /> |'''ari''', '''ar'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |from, out of<br /> |-<br /> |'''yuʃ'''<br /> |''genitive'', ''ablative''<br /> |because of<br /> |-<br /> |'''vøj'''<br /> |''locative''<br /> |through<br /> |-<br /> |'''syn'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |near<br /> |-<br /> |'''kʃe'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |since, ago<br /> |-<br /> |'''pɛn'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |besides, next to<br /> |-<br /> |'''lujg'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |in front of<br /> |-<br /> |'''mœh'''<br /> |''ablative''<br /> |without<br /> |-<br /> |'''sto'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |on, on top of<br /> |-<br /> |'''krɔj'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |under<br /> |-<br /> |'''tjɛs'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |before (time)<br /> |-<br /> |'''gwaj'''<br /> |''accusative''<br /> |after (time)<br /> |-<br /> |'''fyj'''<br /> |''ablative''<br /> |during<br /> |-<br /> |'''vlen'''<br /> |''instrumental''<br /> |despite<br /> |-<br /> |'''uhk'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |except<br /> |-<br /> |'''uzd'''<br /> |''dative''<br /> |instead of<br /> |-<br /> |'''blas'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |behind<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> * '''yin na hedana''' &quot;towards the house&quot;<br /> * '''dun na hedana''' &quot;into the house&quot;<br /> * '''ar kis hedanik''' &quot;from the house&quot;, &quot;out of the house&quot;<br /> * '''syn debb hedanebb''' &quot;near the house&quot;<br /> * '''syn na hedana''' &quot;going near of the house&quot;<br /> * '''pɛn debb hedanebb''' &quot;besides the house&quot;, &quot;next to the house&quot;<br /> * '''pɛn na hedana''' &quot;going next to the house&quot;<br /> * '''lujg debb hedanebb''' &quot;in front to the house&quot;<br /> * '''lujg na hedana''' &quot;going to the front of the house&quot;<br /> * '''mœh dɛv hedanɛv''' &quot;without the house&quot;<br /> * '''sto debb hedanebb''' &quot;on top of the house&quot;<br /> * '''sto na hedana''' &quot;going onto (the top of) the house&quot;<br /> * '''krɔj debb hedanebb''' &quot;under the house&quot;<br /> * '''uzd kʃu hedanu''' &quot;instead of the house&quot;<br /> * '''blas debb hedanebb''' &quot;behind the house&quot;<br /> * '''blas na hedana''' &quot;going behind the house&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> == Adjectives ==<br /> <br /> === Attributive Adjectives ===<br /> Attributive adjectives in Dahur are invariable and come before the noun. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''fɛren grats''' &quot;a smart boy&quot;<br /> * '''duʃ halajn''' &quot;clean water&quot;<br /> * '''selak kanaris''' &quot;pretty eyes&quot;<br /> <br /> A few attributes may be expressed by affixes to the noun, instead of the separate adjective. The most common ones are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar'''<br /> |'''-os''' <br /> (usually deleting the last vowel of the original noun)<br /> |&quot;big&quot;, &quot;large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr'''<br /> |'''-in-''' <br /> (before the last vowel of the or. noun)<br /> |&quot;small&quot;, &quot;little&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani'''<br /> |'''-(t)ta-''' <br /> (before the second vowel of the or. noun)<br /> |&quot;good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''<br /> |'''-aar'''<br /> |&quot;bad&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !With Adjective<br /> !With Affixed Form<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''piktarʃos''' <br /> |&quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''piktarinaʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a little problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''attastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a good idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlaar'''<br /> |&quot;a bad idea&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Certain adjectives have a special, shortened form, which is prefixed to nouns when used attributively. <br /> The most common ones are: <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar'''<br /> |'''nah-''' <br /> |&quot;big&quot;, &quot;large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr'''<br /> |'''ki-''' <br /> (doubles the initial consonant of the noun)<br /> |&quot;small&quot;, &quot;little&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani'''<br /> |'''suw-''' ('''suww-''' before vowels)<br /> |&quot;good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''<br /> |'''dag-''' ('''dagg-''' before vowels)<br /> |&quot;bad&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin'''<br /> |'''sin-''' <br /> |&quot;new&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ'''<br /> |'''dom-''' <br /> |&quot;old&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''mahhalis'''<br /> |'''mah-''' <br /> |&quot;ancient&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''', '''makʃølin'''<br /> |'''møkʃ-''' <br /> |&quot;important&quot;, &quot;great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan'''<br /> |'''tos-''', '''tan-''' <br /> |&quot;beautiful&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki'''<br /> |'''killi-''' <br /> |&quot;false&quot;, &quot;fake&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !With Adjective<br /> !With Prefix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''nahpiktaraʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''kippiktaraʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a small problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''suwwastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a good idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''daggastrønɛl'''<br /> |&quot;a bad idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin dasutr'''<br /> |'''sindasutr''' <br /> |&quot;a new document&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ hedan'''<br /> |'''domhedan''' <br /> |&quot;an old house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''mahhalis kataʃtevan'''<br /> |'''mahkataʃtevan''' <br /> |&quot;an ancient civilization&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen dasutr''', '''makʃølin dasutr'''<br /> |'''møkʃdasutr''' <br /> |&quot;an important document&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen astrønɛl''', '''makʃølin astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''møkʃastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a great idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan dummal'''<br /> |'''tosdummal''', '''tandummal''' <br /> |&quot;a beautiful song&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki bɔrakʃ'''<br /> |'''killibɔrakʃ''' <br /> |&quot;false news&quot;, &quot;fake news&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Predicative Adjectives ===<br /> <br /> An adjective used in predicative function is invariable. Only the full forms of adjectives can be used predicatively. <br /> <br /> Usually a linking verb is employed. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru astrønɛl laje makʃølen.''' || The idea is great.<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru grats alanje befitra.''' || The boy is tired.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is also the possibility of turning adjectives into verbs. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru astrønɛl makʃølnaje.''' || The idea is great.<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru grats abefitranje.''' || The boy is tired.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The most common way to make an adjective into a verb, implying the idea of &quot;be&quot;, is the suffix '''-a-''', which may cause some change in the last syllable of the original adjective. If the adjective already ends in '''-a''', there is no change. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''' <br /> &quot;great&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølna''' <br /> &quot;be great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;be tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani''' <br /> &quot;good&quot;<br /> |'''suwanja''' <br /> &quot;be good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''' <br /> &quot;bad&quot;<br /> |'''daggusa''' <br /> &quot;be bad&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin''' <br /> &quot;new&quot;<br /> |'''sulna''', '''sinna''' <br /> &quot;be new&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ''' <br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dɛtra''' <br /> &quot;be old&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan''' <br /> &quot;beautiful&quot;<br /> |'''tossana''', '''tosna''' <br /> &quot;be beautiful&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''trapter''' <br /> &quot;unique&quot;<br /> |'''traptra''' <br /> &quot;be unique&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃɔtma''' <br /> &quot;sure&quot;, &quot;certain&quot;<br /> |'''ʃɔtama''' <br /> &quot;be sure&quot;, &quot;be certain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kanikli''' <br /> &quot;appropriate&quot;<br /> |'''kankilja''' <br /> &quot;be appropriate&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tubbar''' <br /> &quot;white&quot;<br /> |'''tubabra''' <br /> &quot;be white&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kindis''' <br /> &quot;clear&quot;<br /> |'''kinitsa''' <br /> &quot;be clear&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Another suffix is '''-(a)st(a)-''', meaning &quot;to get&quot; or &quot;to become&quot;. The first optional '''-a-''' appears when necessary, to avoid unsuitable consonant clusters, while the final '''-a''' is only used in the infinitive form of the verb - i.e., without any suffixes. There are some irregular formations.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''' <br /> &quot;great&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølnasta''' <br /> &quot;become great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitrasta''' <br /> &quot;get tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar''' <br /> &quot;big, large&quot;<br /> |'''nahasta''', '''narasta''' <br /> &quot;get big&quot;, &quot;increase&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr''' <br /> &quot;little, small&quot;<br /> |'''kitrasta''', '''katrasta''', '''kirrasta''' <br /> &quot;get smaller&quot;, &quot;decrease&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani''' <br /> &quot;good&quot;<br /> |'''suwanasta'''<br /> &quot;become good&quot;<br /> <br /> '''suwasta''', '''sawasta''', '''suwnasta''' <br /> <br /> &quot;get better&quot;, &quot;improve&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''' , '''daggussa'''<br /> &quot;bad&quot;<br /> |'''daggusasta''', '''daggussasta''' <br /> &quot;become bad&quot;<br /> <br /> '''daggasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get worse&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ'''<br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛsta'''<br /> &quot;become old&quot;<br /> <br /> '''dotrasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get older&quot;, &quot;to age&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan'''<br /> &quot;beautiful<br /> |'''tossanasta'''<br /> &quot;become beautiful&quot;<br /> <br /> '''tossasta''', '''tosnasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get prettier&quot;, &quot;beautify&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki'''<br /> &quot;false&quot;, &quot;fake&quot;<br /> |'''ablikasta'''<br /> &quot;become invalid&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> A few other suffixes perform similar tasks, with more specific meanings. These are usually quite regular. The most productive among these suffixes are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-we'''<br /> |&quot;to remain&quot;, &quot;still be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-kas'''<br /> |&quot;to seem&quot;, &quot;to appear&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-ʃyn'''<br /> |&quot;to pretend to be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-dobb(a)-'''<br /> |&quot;to cease to be&quot;, &quot;to be no longer&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-guj'''<br /> |&quot;to be a little bit&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''nøssar''' <br /> &quot;calm&quot;<br /> |'''nøssarwe''' &quot;remain calm&quot;, &quot;keep calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarkaʃ''' &quot;seem/appear calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarʃyn''' &quot;pretend to be calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssardobba''' &quot;cease to be calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarguj''' &quot;be a little calm&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ''' <br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛkaʃ''' &quot;seem/appear old&quot;<br /> <br /> '''dotrɛguj''' &quot;be a little old&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Comparative === <br /> The comparative of superiority of an adjective can be made by adding the suffix '''-ju''' to the stem. This suffix doubles a preceeding consonant, or becomes '''-jju''' when preceeded by a vowel. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''fɛrennju grats''' &quot;a smarter boy&quot;<br /> * '''duʃʃju halajn''' &quot;cleaner water&quot;<br /> * '''selakkju kanaris''' &quot;prettier eyes&quot;<br /> * '''naharrju piktaraʃ''' &quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> * '''kittrju piktaraʃ''' &quot;a little problem&quot; <br /> * '''suwanijju astrønɛl''' &quot;a better idea&quot;<br /> * '''daggussju''' / '''daggussajju astrønɛl''' &quot;a worse idea&quot;<br /> * '''dotrɛjju pɛten''' &quot;an older book&quot;<br /> <br /> Comparative adjectives may be turned into verbs regularly with the suffix '''-a''', which then becomes '''-wa'''. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølennju''' <br /> &quot;greater&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølennjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be greater&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitrajju''' <br /> &quot;more tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitrajjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be more tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwanijju''' <br /> &quot;better&quot;<br /> |'''suwanijjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be better&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulinnju''' <br /> &quot;newer&quot;<br /> |'''sulinnjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be newer&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛjju''' <br /> &quot;older&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛjjuwa'''<br /> &quot;be older&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossannju''' <br /> &quot;more beautiful&quot;<br /> |'''tossannjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be more beautiful&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The complement of a comparison, corresponding to the conjunction &quot;than&quot;, is placed in the ablative case. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''Nuv pɛten laej suwanijju tuhafɛv.''' &quot;This book is better than that one&quot;<br /> * '''Nuv pɛten suwanijjuwaej tuhafɛv.''' (idem)<br /> * '''Tru dukʃatr laej dotrɛjju dɛv egastɛvɛv.''' &quot;The boss is older than the farmer&quot;<br /> * '''Tru dukʃatr dotrɛjjuwaej dɛv egastɛvɛv.''' (idem)<br /> <br /> == Numerals ==<br /> The basic cardinal numbers are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |0 || '''kal''', '''kahtral'''<br /> |-<br /> |1 || '''mihen'''<br /> |-<br /> |2 || '''dahas'''<br /> |-<br /> |3 || '''travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |4 || '''gazen'''<br /> |-<br /> |5 || '''kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |6 || '''pinjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |7 || '''høtak'''<br /> |-<br /> |8 || '''magɛl'''<br /> |-<br /> |9 || '''donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |10 || '''zɛhɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |11 || '''zɛhɛv mihen''', '''zɛvhen'''<br /> |-<br /> |12 || '''zɛhɛv dahas''', '''zɛvdas'''<br /> |-<br /> |13 || '''zɛhɛv travis''', '''zɛvtras'''<br /> |-<br /> |14 || '''zɛhɛv gazen''', '''zɛvzen'''<br /> |-<br /> |15 || '''zɛhɛv kɛʃav''', '''zɛvkʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |16 || '''zɛhɛv pinjan''', '''zɛvpan'''<br /> |-<br /> |17 || '''zɛhɛv høtak''','''zɛvhøk'''<br /> |-<br /> |18 || '''zɛhɛv magɛl''', '''zɛvmal'''<br /> |-<br /> |19 || '''zɛhɛv donwaʒ''', '''zɛvdaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |20 || '''dahassɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |30 || '''travissɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |40 || '''gazennɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |50 || '''kɛʃavvɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |60 || '''pinjannɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |70 || '''høtakkɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |80 || '''magɛllɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |90 || '''donwaʒʒɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |100 || '''lakin'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,000 || '''tatrimi'''<br /> |-<br /> |10,000 || '''zɛhɛv tatrimi'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Numbers are composed by joining the base units above, from bigger to lower. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |23 || '''dahassɛv travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |45 || '''gazennɛv kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |67 || '''pinjannɛv høtak'''<br /> |-<br /> |89 || '''magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |123 || '''lakin dahassɛv travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |456 || '''gazen lakin kɛʃavvɛv pinjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |789 || '''høtak lakin magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,234 || '''tatrimi dahas lakin travissɛv gazen'''<br /> |-<br /> |5,678 || '''kɛʃav tatrimi pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl'''<br /> |-<br /> |12,345 || '''zɛvdas tatrimi travis lakin gazennɛv kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |678,910 || '''pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl tatrimi donwaʒ lakin zɛhɛv'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Ordinal numbers are created with the suffix '''-iki'''. Ex.: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |1st || '''miheniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |2nd || '''dahasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |3rd || '''travisiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |4th || '''gazeniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |5th || '''kɛʃaviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |6th || '''pinjaniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |7th || '''høtakiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |8th || '''magɛliki'''<br /> |-<br /> |9th || '''donwaʒiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |10th || '''zɛhɛviki''', '''zɛhviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |11th || '''zɛvheniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |12th || '''zɛvdasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |13th || '''zɛvtrasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |14th || '''zɛvzeniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |15th || '''zɛvkʃaviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |16th || '''zɛvpaniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |17th || '''zɛvhøkiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |18th || '''zɛvmaliki'''<br /> |-<br /> |19th || '''zɛvdaʒiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |20th || '''dahassɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |30th || '''travissɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |40th || '''gazennɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |50th || '''kɛʃavvɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |60th || '''pinjannɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |70th || '''høtakkɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |80th || '''magɛllɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |90th || '''donwaʒʒɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |100th || '''lakiniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,000th || '''tatrimiiki'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Pronouns ==<br /> <br /> === Personal Pronouns ===<br /> Personal Pronouns in Dahur indicate person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and number (singular, dual, plural).<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|1st Person<br /> |'''dɛ''' &quot;I&quot; , &quot;me&quot;<br /> |'''ʃes''' &quot;we both&quot;<br /> |'''ʃɛn''' &quot;we&quot;, &quot;us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''dɛ'''<br /> |'''ʃes'''<br /> |'''ʃɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''dɛa''', '''da'''<br /> |'''ʃeas''', '''ʃas'''<br /> |'''ʃan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''dɛw''', '''du'''<br /> |'''ʃeus''', '''ʃews''', '''ʃus'''<br /> |'''ʃɛun''', '''ʃɛwn''', '''ʃun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''dɛk'''<br /> |'''ʃesk'''<br /> |'''ʃɛkɛn''', '''ʃkɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''dɛbb'''<br /> |'''ʃeps'''<br /> |'''ʃɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''dɛm'''<br /> |'''ʃems'''<br /> |'''ʃɛom''', '''ʃom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |'''ʃɛfs'''<br /> |'''ʃɛɛv''', '''ʃɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''dɛjøtr''', '''dɛtr'''<br /> |'''ʃesøtr'''<br /> |'''ʃɛtrøn''', '''ʃtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''dɛt'''<br /> |'''ʃets'''<br /> |'''ʃɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|2nd Person<br /> |'''hej''' &quot;you (sg.), thou&quot;<br /> |'''kwes''' &quot;you both&quot;<br /> |'''kwɛn''' &quot;you (pl.)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''hej'''<br /> |'''kwes'''<br /> |'''kwɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''heja''', '''ja'''<br /> |'''kweas''', '''kwas'''<br /> |'''kwɛan''', '''kwan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''heju''', '''ju'''<br /> |'''kweus'''<br /> |'''kwɛun''', '''kun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''heik''', '''hejik'''<br /> |'''kwesk'''<br /> |'''kwɛnek''', '''kwɛnk'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''heibb''', '''hibb'''<br /> |'''kweps'''<br /> |'''kwɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''heim''', '''him'''<br /> |'''kwems'''<br /> |'''kwɛom''', '''kwɛm''', '''kwom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''hejɛv''', '''jɛv'''<br /> |'''kwɛfs'''<br /> |'''kwɛɛv''', '''kwɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''hejøtr''', '''hjøtr'''<br /> |'''kwesøtr'''<br /> |'''kwɛtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Vocative<br /> |'''heje'''<br /> |'''kwejes'''<br /> |'''kwɛjɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''hɛt'''<br /> |'''kwets'''<br /> |'''kwɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|3rd Person<br /> |'''nar''' &quot;he&quot;, &quot;she&quot;, &quot;it&quot;<br /> |'''ras''' &quot;they both&quot;<br /> |'''ren''' &quot;they&quot;, &quot;them&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''nar'''<br /> |'''ras'''<br /> |'''rɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''nara''', '''ra'''<br /> |'''ras'''<br /> |'''rɛan''', '''ran'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''naru''', '''ru'''<br /> |'''raus''', '''raws''', '''rus'''<br /> |'''rɛun''', '''rɛwn''', '''run'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''narɛk''', '''rɛk'''<br /> |'''resk'''<br /> |'''rɛkɛn''', '''ɛrken'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''narebb''', '''rebb'''<br /> |'''reps'''<br /> |'''rɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''narom''', '''rom'''<br /> |'''rems'''<br /> |'''rɛnom''', '''rom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''narɛv''', '''rɛv'''<br /> |'''rɛfs'''<br /> |'''rɛɛv''', '''rɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''narøtr''', '''røtr'''<br /> |'''resøtr'''<br /> |'''rɛtrøn''', '''ɛrtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''rɛt'''<br /> |'''rets'''<br /> |'''rɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The '''genitive''' forms work as possessive pronouns. In that case, the definite article is optional. Ex.: <br /> * '''tru dɛk astrønɛl''', '''dɛk astrønɛl''' &quot;my idea&quot;<br /> * '''na heik kʃalima''', '''heik kʃalima''' &quot;your hair (accus.)&quot;<br /> * '''trom narɛk kɛʃevom''', '''narɛk kɛʃevom''' &quot;with his/her hammer (instr.)&quot;<br /> * '''tu dɛk menirun''', '''dɛk menirun''' &quot;to my children (dat.)&quot;<br /> <br /> Object pronouns usually come before the verb. The shorter, unstressed version is preferred. Ex.: <br /> * '''Ja angenus.''' &quot;I can see you (sing.).&quot;<br /> * '''Kwas angenus.''' &quot;I can see you two.&quot;<br /> * '''Kwan angenus.''' &quot;I can see you (pl.).&quot;<br /> * '''Ra angenus.''' &quot;I can see it/him/her.&quot;<br /> * '''Ras angenus.''' &quot;I can see them both.&quot;<br /> * '''Ran angenus.''' &quot;I can see them.&quot;<br /> * '''Da angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see me.&quot;<br /> * '''ʃas angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see us both.&quot;<br /> * '''ʃan angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see us.&quot;<br /> <br /> An object pronoun may also appear after the verb. In that case, the preference is for the longer, stressed versions. Ex.:<br /> * '''Angenus ja/heja.''' &quot;I can see you (sing.).&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus kweas/kwas.''' &quot;I can see you two.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus kwɛan/kwan.''' &quot;I can see you (pl.).&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus nara/ra.''' &quot;I can see it/him/her.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus ras.''' &quot;I can see them both.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus rɛan/ran.''' &quot;I can see them.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej dɛa/da.''' &quot;He/she can see me.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej ʃeas/ʃas.''' &quot;He/she can see us both.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej ʃan.''' &quot;He/she can see us.&quot;<br /> <br /> The most common case for a verb complement is the accusative. However, verbs may require different cases. Ex.: <br /> * '''Kun dagsuttoj!''' &quot;It will harm you!&quot; / &quot;It will be harmful to you!&quot; ('''dagusta''' &quot;harm, be harmful&quot; + dat.)<br /> * '''Ja/Ju darʃinɔn.''' &quot;We trust you.&quot; ('''darʃin''' &quot;trust&quot; + acc./dat.)<br /> * '''Poglattindsa narɛv/rɛv''' &quot;I didn't use it.&quot; ('''poglar''' &quot;use&quot; + abl.)<br /> * '''Ra twiʃnettmis.''' &quot;You drank it (all).&quot; / '''Rɛt twiʃnettmis.''' &quot;You drank (some of) it.&quot; '''twiʃin''' &quot;drink&quot; +acc. (whole), +part. (specific amount)<br /> <br /> === Demonstrative Pronouns ===<br /> The main demonstrative pronouns are: <br /> <br /> * '''nuv''' &quot;this, these&quot;<br /> * '''tuhaf''' &quot;that, those&quot;<br /> <br /> When accompanying a noun, they behave as adjectives and are not inflected. <br /> <br /> When used on their own, they stand as nouns and are inflected according to the class of the intended noun. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''Nuv grats laej fɛrennju nuvɛv.''' &quot;This boy is smarter than this one.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> === Interrogative Pronouns ===<br /> <br /> === Indefinite Pronouns ===<br /> <br /> === Relative Pronoun ===<br /> The main relative pronoun in Dahur is '''jao''', as shown in the following table. <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''jao'''<br /> |'''jes'''<br /> |'''jen'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''jaa''', '''ja'''<br /> |'''jeas''', '''jas'''<br /> |'''jaan''', '''jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''jau''', '''jaw'''<br /> |'''jeus''', '''jews'''<br /> |'''jeun''', '''jewn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''jak'''<br /> |'''jesk'''<br /> |'''jenk'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''jaebb'''<br /> |'''jaeps'''<br /> |'''jaemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''jaom'''<br /> |'''jaoms'''<br /> |'''jaom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''jaɛv'''<br /> |'''jaɛfs'''<br /> |'''janɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''jaøtr'''<br /> |'''jasøtr'''<br /> |'''jatrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> | - <br /> |'''jets'''<br /> |'''jent'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The pronoun agrees in number with the antecedent, but its case is determined by its function in the subordinate clause. Ex.:<br /> * '''tru grats jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;the boy (nom.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''na gratsa jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;the boy (accus.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''kʃu gratsu jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;to the boy (dat.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''kis gratsak jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;of the boy (gen.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''trø gratsøtr jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;by the boy (erg.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''tann gratsen jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;the boys (nom.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''ta gratsan jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;the boys (accus.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tun gratsun jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;to the boys (dat.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tak gratsken jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr gratsetrøn jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tru grats jaa kahettsa''' &quot;the boy (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''na gratsa jaa kahettsa''' &quot;the boy (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''kʃu gratsu jaa kahettsa''' &quot;to the boy (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''kis gratsak jaa kahettsa''' &quot;of the boy (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''trø gratsøtr jaa kahettsa''' &quot;by the boy (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tann gratsen jaan kahettsa''' &quot;the boys (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''ta gratsan jaan kahettsa''' &quot;the boys (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tun gratsun jaan kahettsa''' &quot;to the boys (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tak gratsken jaan kahettsa''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr gratsetrøn jaan kahettsa''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> <br /> Besides this pronoun, relative clauses may also be formed with participles. <br /> <br /> Ex.:<br /> <br /> * '''tru ateʃfanur grats''' &quot;the boy (nom.) who is running away&quot; <br /> * '''na ateʃfanur gratsa''' &quot;the boy (accus.) who is running away&quot; <br /> * '''tak ateʃfanur gratsken''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) who are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tru dɛtr kahettek grats''', '''tru grats dɛtr kahettek''' &quot;the boy (nom.) whom I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr dɛtr kahettek gratsetrøn''', '''tøtr gratsetrøn dɛtr kahettek''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) whom I saw&quot;<br /> <br /> == Verbs ==<br /> <br /> === Finite Forms ===<br /> <br /> Verbs in Dahur have different stems indicating aspect. The conjugation uses different sets of endings to indicate tense or time. <br /> <br /> The basic verb stems are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Aspect<br /> !Meaning<br /> !Form<br /> |-<br /> |Generic<br /> |''verbal idea without a specific context, time or aspect''<br /> |the basic stem of the verb<br /> |-<br /> |Cursive (Progressive; Continuous)<br /> |''action ongoing at the moment of reference<br /> |prefix '''a-''' and suffix '''-(a)n-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Aorist<br /> |''a complete or punctual action''<br /> |suffix '''-(e)tt-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Perfect<br /> |''the result of an action that happened before the reference time''<br /> |suffix '''-(l)l(a)-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Unrealised (Future)<br /> |''action as not realised in relation to the reference time''<br /> |prefix '''u-''' and suffix '''-(u)ʃ-''' <br /> |-<br /> |Conditional<br /> |''irrealis, usually an action depending on another''<br /> |prefix '''i-''' (doubling the initial consonant) and suffix '''-i-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Stem formation is often irregular. <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Generic<br /> !Cursive<br /> !Aorist<br /> !Perfect<br /> !Unrealised<br /> !Conditional <br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmal-'''<br /> |'''akʃmalan-'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalett-'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalla-'''<br /> |'''ukaʃmaluʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkaʃmali-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''la-'''<br /> |'''alan-'''<br /> |'''latt-'''<br /> |'''lalla-'''<br /> |'''ulauʃ-'''<br /> |'''illai-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''wennin''' &quot;live&quot; <br /> |'''wennin-'''<br /> |'''awann-'''<br /> |'''wennett-'''<br /> |'''wennilla-'''<br /> |'''uwenninʃ-'''<br /> |'''iwennini-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadra-'''<br /> |'''agandran-'''<br /> |'''gadrett-'''<br /> |'''gadralla-'''<br /> |'''ugadruʃ-'''<br /> |'''iggadri-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''tefʃiv''' &quot;flee&quot;<br /> |'''tefʃiv-'''<br /> |'''ateʃfan-'''<br /> |'''tefʃivett-'''<br /> |'''tefʃivla-'''<br /> |'''utefʃivuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittefʃivi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maʃkintɾod''' &quot;represent&quot;<br /> |'''maʃkintɾod-'''<br /> |'''amaʃkintɾon-'''<br /> |'''maʃkintɾott-'''<br /> |'''maʃkintɾolla-'''<br /> |'''umaʃkintɾotʃ-'''<br /> |'''immaʃkintɾodi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kajnaar''' &quot;jump&quot;<br /> |'''kajnaar-'''<br /> |'''akajnaan-'''<br /> |'''kajnerett-'''<br /> |'''kajnaalla-'''<br /> |'''ukajnaaruʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkajnaari-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys''' &quot;take care of&quot;<br /> |'''taldesyys-'''<br /> |'''ataldesyyn-'''<br /> |'''taldesyyst-'''<br /> |'''taldesyyll-'''<br /> |'''utaldesyyʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittaldesyysi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kota-'''<br /> |'''ankon-'''<br /> |'''kotatt-'''<br /> |'''kekolla-'''<br /> |'''ukotuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkoti-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussi-'''<br /> |'''ahsejn-'''<br /> |'''hust-'''<br /> |'''huzilla-'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ihusseji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''ken-''', '''kena-'''<br /> |'''angen-'''<br /> |'''kahett-'''<br /> |'''kenalla-''', '''kralla-'''<br /> |'''ukunuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkeni-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''mend''' &quot;become&quot;<br /> |'''mend-'''<br /> |'''amdan-'''<br /> |'''menett-'''<br /> |'''mendla-'''<br /> |'''umenduʃ-'''<br /> |'''immendi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustaj-''', '''ustaji-'''<br /> |'''anstajn-''', '''anstajin-'''<br /> |'''ustatt-''', '''ustitt-'''<br /> |'''ustalla-''', '''ustilla-'''<br /> |'''ustajuʃ-'''<br /> |'''istaji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''maj-'''<br /> |'''amann-'''<br /> |'''menett-'''<br /> |'''mjalla-'''<br /> |'''umujuʃ-'''<br /> |'''immaji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trak-'''<br /> |'''atrakan-'''<br /> |'''tetrakett-'''<br /> |'''ketralla-'''<br /> |'''utrakʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittraggi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''pakt''' &quot;understand&quot;<br /> |'''pakt-'''<br /> |'''ampakn-'''<br /> |'''pakett-'''<br /> |'''paktalla-'''<br /> |'''upaktuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ippakti-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''durʃin''' &quot;seem, appear&quot;<br /> |'''durʃin-'''<br /> |'''adurʃan-'''<br /> |'''durʃint-'''<br /> |'''durʃilla-'''<br /> |'''udurʃinʃ-'''<br /> |'''iddurʃini-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka''' &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |'''ʃaka-'''<br /> |'''aʃkan-'''<br /> |'''ʃakkatt-'''<br /> |'''ʃakalla-'''<br /> |'''uʃakkuʃ-'''<br /> |'''iʃakki-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kʃa''' [passive voice auxiliary]<br /> |'''kʃa-'''<br /> |'''akʃan-'''<br /> |'''kʃatt-'''<br /> |'''kʃalla-'''<br /> |'''ukʃuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkʃi-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The personal endings are : <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Present<br /> !Past<br /> !Future<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-sa'''<br /> |'''-os'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''-im'''<br /> |'''-mis'''<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''-ej'''<br /> |'''-jes'''<br /> |'''-oj'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''-ɔn'''<br /> |'''-sɔn'''<br /> |'''-on'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''-ib'''<br /> |'''-ips'''<br /> |'''-ob'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''-ɛw'''<br /> |'''-sɛw'''<br /> |'''-ow'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The following combinations of stem + ending set occur: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |Present<br /> |Past<br /> |Future<br /> |-<br /> |Generic<br /> !Simple <br /> Present<br /> !Habitual<br /> Past (&quot;used to&quot;)<br /> !Indefinite<br /> Future<br /> |-<br /> |Cursive<br /> !Present<br /> Continuous<br /> !Past <br /> Continuous<br /> !Future<br /> Progressive<br /> |-<br /> |Aorist<br /> |<br /> !Simple <br /> Past (Aorist)<br /> !Definite Future<br /> (Specific, Punctual)<br /> |-<br /> |Perfect<br /> !Present <br /> Perfect<br /> !Past<br /> Perfect<br /> !Future <br /> Perfect<br /> |-<br /> |Unrealised<br /> !Near <br /> Future<br /> !Unrealised <br /> Past (&quot;would&quot;)<br /> !Future <br /> (Remote) <br /> |-<br /> |Conditional <br /> !Conditional <br /> Present<br /> !Conditional <br /> Past<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> For the imperative, the base form of the verb is used. Optionally, the particle '''a''' can be used before the verb. Ex.: <br /> * '''Kaʃmal!''' / '''A kaʃmal!''' &quot;Take!&quot;<br /> * '''Hussi!''' / '''A hussi!''' &quot;Listen!&quot;<br /> * '''Spa kajnaar!''' / '''A spa kajnaar!''' &quot;Don't jump!&quot;<br /> <br /> While the formation of aspect stems is often irregular, the combination of stem + endings is usually quite regular and predictable. The usual epenthetic phonemes occur, mostly the semivowels ('''j''' and '''w'''), when two vowels come together, but these are more an artifact of speech and aren't usually indicated in writing. Ex.: <br /> * '''kaʃmallaus''', '''kaʃmallawus''' <br /> * '''kaʃmallaim''', '''kaʃmallajim''' <br /> * '''kaʃmallaej''', '''kaʃmallajej''', '''kaʃmallahej'''<br /> * '''kaʃmallaɔn''', '''kaʃmallawɔn''' <br /> * '''iggadriips''', '''iggadrijips'''<br /> * '''iggadrius''', '''iggadrijus'''<br /> * &amp;c.<br /> <br /> ==== Negative ====<br /> <br /> The infix '''-(i)nd-''', placed before the personal endings, makes a verb negative. Ex.: <br /> * '''landus''' &quot;I am not&quot;<br /> * '''lattindsɛw''' &quot;they weren't&quot;<br /> * '''hussindoj''' &quot;he/she won't listen&quot;<br /> * '''ateʃfanindips''' &quot;you weren't running away&quot;<br /> <br /> The emphatic negative particle '''spa''' may be used before the verb, always in the negative form. Ex.: <br /> * '''spa landus''' &quot;I am most certainly not&quot;<br /> * '''spa lattindsɛw''' &quot;they definitely weren't&quot;<br /> * '''spa hussindoj''' &quot;he/she will not listen at all&quot;<br /> * '''spa ateʃfanindips''' &quot;you really weren't running away&quot;<br /> <br /> This particle '''spa''' is also used in a negative command, with the base form of the verb. In that case, it doesn't necessarily have an emphatic meaning. Ex.: <br /> * '''Spa hussi!''' / '''A spa hussi!''' &quot;Don't listen!&quot;<br /> <br /> === Nominal Forms ===<br /> <br /> ==== Infinitive ==== <br /> <br /> The Dahur verb has infinitives for the Generic, Cursive, Aorist, Perfect and Unrealised aspects. They are formed by adding the ending '''-eh''' to the corresponding stem. The prefix '''u-''' of the Unrealised aspect is optional in the infinitive. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Generic<br /> !Cursive<br /> !Aorist<br /> !Perfect<br /> !Unrealised<br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmaleh'''<br /> |'''akʃmalaneh'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaletteh'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaeh'''<br /> |'''ukaʃmaluʃeh''', '''kaʃmaluʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''laeh'''<br /> |'''alaneh'''<br /> |'''latteh'''<br /> |'''lallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)lauʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadraeh'''<br /> |'''agandraneh'''<br /> |'''gadretteh'''<br /> |'''gadrallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)gadruʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kotaeh'''<br /> |'''ankoneh'''<br /> |'''kotatteh'''<br /> |'''kekollaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)kotuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussieh'''<br /> |'''ahsejneh'''<br /> |'''husteh'''<br /> |'''huzillaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)hussuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''keneh'''<br /> |'''angeneh'''<br /> |'''kahetteh'''<br /> |'''kenallaeh''', '''krallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)kunuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustajeh'''<br /> |'''anstajneh'''<br /> |'''ustatteh''', '''ustitteh'''<br /> |'''ustallaeh''', '''ustillaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)stajuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''majeh'''<br /> |'''amanneh'''<br /> |'''menetteh'''<br /> |'''mjallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)mujuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trakeh'''<br /> |'''atrakaneh'''<br /> |'''tetraketteh'''<br /> |'''ketrallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)trakʃeh'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The infinitive may be used as a noun, but also with certain auxiliary verbs. When a participle is used as a noun, usually the definite article may be omitted. Ex.: <br /> <br /> *'''(Tru) kotaeh laej suwani.''' / '''(Tru) kotaeh suwanjaej.''' &quot;Eating is good.&quot;<br /> <br /> ==== Participle ====<br /> Participles are built by adding specific suffixes to the corresponding stems of the verb: <br /> * '''-ur''' (active participle)<br /> * '''-ek''' (passive participle)<br /> <br /> The prefix '''u-''' of the unrealised stem is dropped.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Generic<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Cursive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Aorist<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmalur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalek'''<br /> |'''akʃmalanur'''<br /> |'''akʃmalanek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalettur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalettek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaur''', '''kaʃmallur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaek''', '''kaʃmallek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaluʃur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaluʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''laur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''alanur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lattur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lallaur''', '''lallur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lauʃur'''<br /> | <br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadraur'''<br /> |'''gadraek'''<br /> |'''agandranur'''<br /> |'''agandranek'''<br /> |'''gadrettur'''<br /> |'''gadrettek'''<br /> |'''gadrallur'''<br /> |'''gadrallek'''<br /> |'''gadruʃur'''<br /> |'''gadruʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kotaur'''<br /> |'''kotaek'''<br /> |'''ankonur'''<br /> |'''ankonek'''<br /> |'''kotattur'''<br /> |'''kotattek'''<br /> |'''kekollur'''<br /> |'''kekollek'''<br /> |'''kotuʃur'''<br /> |'''kotuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussiur'''<br /> |'''hussiek'''<br /> |'''ahsejnur'''<br /> |'''ahsejnek'''<br /> |'''hustur'''<br /> |'''hustek'''<br /> |'''huzillaur'''<br /> |'''huzillaek'''<br /> |'''hussuʃur'''<br /> |'''hussuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''kenur'''<br /> |'''kenek'''<br /> |'''angenur'''<br /> |'''angenek'''<br /> |'''kahettur'''<br /> |'''kahettek'''<br /> |'''kenallur''', '''krallur'''<br /> |'''kenallek''', '''krallek'''<br /> |'''kunuʃur'''<br /> |'''kunuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustajur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''anstajnur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustattur''', '''ustittur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustallur''', '''ustillek'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustajuʃur'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''majur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''amannur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''menettur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''mjallur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''mujuʃur'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trakur'''<br /> |'''trakek'''<br /> |'''atrakanur'''<br /> |'''atrakanek'''<br /> |'''tetrakettur'''<br /> |'''tetrakettek'''<br /> |'''ketrallur'''<br /> |'''ketrallek'''<br /> |'''trakʃur'''<br /> |'''trakʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka''' &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |'''ʃakaur'''<br /> |'''ʃakaek'''<br /> |'''aʃkanur'''<br /> |'''aʃkanek'''<br /> |'''ʃakkattur'''<br /> |'''ʃakkattek'''<br /> |'''ʃakallur'''<br /> |'''ʃakallek'''<br /> |'''ʃakkuʃur'''<br /> |'''ʃakkuʃek'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The corresponding negative versions of these participles are formed regularly with the suffix '''-(i)nd-'''. Ex.:<br /> * '''landur''' &quot;not being&quot;<br /> * '''angenindur''' &quot;not seeing&quot;<br /> * '''gradrettindek''' &quot;not written&quot;<br /> * '''ketrallindur''' &quot;who/which had not done&quot;<br /> * '''aʃkanindek''' &quot;which isn't being hunted&quot;<br /> <br /> === Passive Voice ===<br /> <br /> The passive voice is built with the auxiliary '''kʃa''', conjugated regularly, followed by the base form of the verb. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''akʃanus taldesyys''' &quot;I'm being taken care of&quot;<br /> * '''akʃanindmis ken''' &quot;you were not being seen&quot;<br /> * '''kʃallaɔn kaʃmal''' &quot;we have been taken&quot;<br /> * '''kʃattsɛw kota''' &quot;they were eaten&quot;<br /> * '''ikkʃindej trak''' &quot;if it's not done&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> === Conjugation ===<br /> Next you have a few verbs, conjugated in all its forms.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|Verb '''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Present<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Continuous <br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Perfect <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Near Future <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Present <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''laus'''<br /> |'''landus'''<br /> |'''alanus'''<br /> |'''alanindus'''<br /> |'''lallaus'''<br /> |'''lallandus'''<br /> |'''ulauʃus'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindus'''<br /> |'''illaius'''<br /> |'''illaindus'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''laim'''<br /> |'''landim'''<br /> |'''alanim'''<br /> |'''alanindim'''<br /> |'''lallaim'''<br /> |'''lallandim'''<br /> |'''ulauʃim'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindim'''<br /> |'''illaiim'''<br /> |'''illaindim'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''laej'''<br /> |'''landej'''<br /> |'''alanej'''<br /> |'''alanindej'''<br /> |'''lallaej'''<br /> |'''lallandej'''<br /> |'''ulauʃej'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindej'''<br /> |'''illaiej'''<br /> |'''illaindej'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''laɔn'''<br /> |'''landɔn'''<br /> |'''alanɔn'''<br /> |'''alanindɔn'''<br /> |'''lallaɔn'''<br /> |'''lallandɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindɔn'''<br /> |'''illaiɔn'''<br /> |'''illaindɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laib'''<br /> |'''landib'''<br /> |'''alanib'''<br /> |'''alanindib'''<br /> |'''lallaib'''<br /> |'''lallandib'''<br /> |'''ulauʃib'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindib'''<br /> |'''illaiib'''<br /> |'''illaindib'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''laɛw'''<br /> |'''landɛw'''<br /> |'''alanɛw'''<br /> |'''alanindɛw'''<br /> |'''lallaɛw'''<br /> |'''lallandɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindɛw'''<br /> |'''illaiɛw'''<br /> |'''illaindɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Habitual Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Continuous <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Past <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Past <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''lasa'''<br /> |'''landsa'''<br /> |'''alansa'''<br /> |'''alanindsa'''<br /> |'''lattsa'''<br /> |'''lattindsa'''<br /> |'''lallasa'''<br /> |'''lallandsa'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsa'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsa'''<br /> |'''illaisa'''<br /> |'''illaindsa'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''lamis'''<br /> |'''landmis'''<br /> |'''alanmis'''<br /> |'''alanindmis'''<br /> |'''lattmis'''<br /> |'''lattindmis'''<br /> |'''lallamis'''<br /> |'''lallandmis'''<br /> |'''ulauʃmis'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindmis'''<br /> |'''illaimis'''<br /> |'''illaindmis'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''lajes'''<br /> |'''landjes'''<br /> |'''alanjes'''<br /> |'''alanindjes'''<br /> |'''lattjes'''<br /> |'''lattindjes'''<br /> |'''lallajes'''<br /> |'''lallandjes'''<br /> |'''ulauʃjes'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindjes'''<br /> |'''illaijes'''<br /> |'''illaindjes'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''lasɔn'''<br /> |'''landsɔn'''<br /> |'''alansɔn'''<br /> |'''alanindsɔn'''<br /> |'''lattsɔn'''<br /> |'''lattindsɔn'''<br /> |'''lallasɔn'''<br /> |'''lallandsɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsɔn'''<br /> |'''illaisɔn'''<br /> |'''illaiindsɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laips'''<br /> |'''landips'''<br /> |'''alanips'''<br /> |'''alanindips'''<br /> |'''lattips'''<br /> |'''lattindips'''<br /> |'''lallaips'''<br /> |'''lallandips'''<br /> |'''ulauʃips'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindips'''<br /> |'''illaiips'''<br /> |'''illaindips'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''lasɛw'''<br /> |'''landsɛw'''<br /> |'''alansɛw'''<br /> |'''alanindsɛw'''<br /> |'''lattsɛw'''<br /> |'''lattindsɛw'''<br /> |'''lallasɛw'''<br /> |'''lallandsɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsɛw'''<br /> |'''illaisɛw'''<br /> |'''illaindsɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Indefinite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Progressive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Definite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Remote Future<br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''laos'''<br /> |'''landos'''<br /> |'''alanos'''<br /> |'''alanindos'''<br /> |'''lattos'''<br /> |'''lattindos'''<br /> |'''lallaos'''<br /> |'''lallandos'''<br /> |'''ulauʃos'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindos'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''laom'''<br /> |'''landom'''<br /> |'''alanom'''<br /> |'''alanindom'''<br /> |'''lattom'''<br /> |'''lattindom'''<br /> |'''lallaom'''<br /> |'''lallandom'''<br /> |'''ulauʃom'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindom'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''laoj'''<br /> |'''landoj'''<br /> |'''alanoj'''<br /> |'''alanindoj'''<br /> |'''lattoj'''<br /> |'''lattindoj'''<br /> |'''lallaoj'''<br /> |'''lallandoj'''<br /> |'''ulauʃoj'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindoj'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''laon'''<br /> |'''landon'''<br /> |'''alanon'''<br /> |'''alanindon'''<br /> |'''latton'''<br /> |'''lattindon'''<br /> |'''lallaon'''<br /> |'''lallandon'''<br /> |'''ulauʃon'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindon'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laob'''<br /> |'''landob'''<br /> |'''alanob'''<br /> |'''alanindob'''<br /> |'''lattob'''<br /> |'''lattindob'''<br /> |'''lallaob'''<br /> |'''lallandob'''<br /> |'''ulauʃob'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindob'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''laow'''<br /> |'''landow'''<br /> |'''alanow'''<br /> |'''alanindow'''<br /> |'''lattow'''<br /> |'''lattindow'''<br /> |'''lallaow'''<br /> |'''lallandow'''<br /> |'''ulauʃow'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindow'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|Verb '''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Present<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Continuous <br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Perfect <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Near Future <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Present <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussius'''<br /> |'''hussindus'''<br /> |'''ahsejnus'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindus'''<br /> |'''huzillaus'''<br /> |'''huzillandus'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃus'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindus'''<br /> |'''ihussejius'''<br /> |'''ihussejindus'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussiim'''<br /> |'''hussindim'''<br /> |'''ahsejnim'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindim'''<br /> |'''huzillaim'''<br /> |'''huzillandim'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃim'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindim'''<br /> |'''ihussejiim'''<br /> |'''ihussejindim'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussije'''<br /> |'''hussindje'''<br /> |'''ahsejnje'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindje'''<br /> |'''huzillaje'''<br /> |'''huzillandje'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃje'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindje'''<br /> |'''ihussejije'''<br /> |'''ihussejindje'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussiɔn'''<br /> |'''hussindɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillaɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillandɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejiɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejindɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiib'''<br /> |'''hussindib'''<br /> |'''ahsejnib'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindib'''<br /> |'''huzillaib'''<br /> |'''huzillandib'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃib'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindib'''<br /> |'''ihussejiib'''<br /> |'''ihussejindib'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussiɛw'''<br /> |'''hussindɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillaɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillandɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejiɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejindɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Habitual Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Continuous <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Past <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Past <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussisa'''<br /> |'''hussindsa'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsa'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsa'''<br /> |'''hustsa'''<br /> |'''hustindsa'''<br /> |'''huzillasa'''<br /> |'''huzillandsa'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsa'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsa'''<br /> |'''ihussejisa'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsa'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussimis'''<br /> |'''hussindmis'''<br /> |'''ahsejnmis'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindmis'''<br /> |'''hustmis'''<br /> |'''hustindmis'''<br /> |'''huzillamis'''<br /> |'''huzillandmis'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃmis'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindmis'''<br /> |'''ihussejimis'''<br /> |'''ihussejindmis'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussijes'''<br /> |'''hussindjes'''<br /> |'''ahsejnjes'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindjes'''<br /> |'''hustjes'''<br /> |'''hustindjes'''<br /> |'''huzillajes'''<br /> |'''huzillandjes'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃjes'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindjes'''<br /> |'''ihussejijes'''<br /> |'''ihussejindjes'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussisɔn'''<br /> |'''hussindsɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsɔn'''<br /> |'''hustsɔn'''<br /> |'''hustindsɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillasɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillandsɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejisɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiips'''<br /> |'''hussindips'''<br /> |'''ahsejnips'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindips'''<br /> |'''hustips'''<br /> |'''hustindips'''<br /> |'''huzillaips'''<br /> |'''huzillandips'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃips'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindips'''<br /> |'''ihussejiips'''<br /> |'''ihussejindips'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussisɛw'''<br /> |'''hussindsɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsɛw'''<br /> |'''hustsɛw'''<br /> |'''hustindsɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillasɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillandsɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejisɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Indefinite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Progressive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Definite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Remote Future<br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussios'''<br /> |'''hussindos'''<br /> |'''ahsejnos'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindos'''<br /> |'''hustos'''<br /> |'''hustindos'''<br /> |'''huzillaos'''<br /> |'''huzillandos'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃos'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindos'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussiom'''<br /> |'''hussindom'''<br /> |'''ahsejnom'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindom'''<br /> |'''hustom'''<br /> |'''hustindom'''<br /> |'''huzillaom'''<br /> |'''huzillandom'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃom'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindom'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussioj'''<br /> |'''hussindoj'''<br /> |'''ahsejnoj'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindoj'''<br /> |'''hustoj'''<br /> |'''hustindoj'''<br /> |'''huzillaoj'''<br /> |'''huzillandoj'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃoj'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindoj'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussion'''<br /> |'''hussindon'''<br /> |'''ahsejnon'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindon'''<br /> |'''huston'''<br /> |'''hustindon'''<br /> |'''huzillaon'''<br /> |'''huzillandon'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃon'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindon'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiob'''<br /> |'''hussindob'''<br /> |'''ahsejnob'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindob'''<br /> |'''hustob'''<br /> |'''hustindob'''<br /> |'''huzillaob'''<br /> |'''huzillandob'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃob'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindob'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussiow'''<br /> |'''hussindow'''<br /> |'''ahsejnow'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindow'''<br /> |'''hustow'''<br /> |'''hustindow'''<br /> |'''huzillaow'''<br /> |'''huzillandow'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃow'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindow'''<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Incorporation ===<br /> Besides complementing a verb with a noun phrase in the accusative (or some other) case, complements may be incorporated in the verb. This resource is particularly common with more frequent verb + complement combinations. Common verbs, especially indicating more fundamental actions such as &quot;eat&quot;, &quot;drink&quot;, &quot;take&quot;, &quot;speak&quot;, &quot;make&quot;, &quot;kill&quot; &amp;c. are more prone to this type of constructions, while more abstract verbs, as well as less frequently used verbs, tend to follow the more conventional verb + complement approach. <br /> <br /> When a complement is incorporated to a verb, it receives the prefix '''s-''' and is placed before the verb root. Irregularities are not uncommon. <br /> Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Regular Construction<br /> !Incorporation<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota ʃøga'''<br /> |'''sʃøgkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat meat&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota dabasa'''<br /> |'''sdabaskota'''<br /> |&quot;eat bread&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota drupala'''<br /> |'''sdrupalkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat vegetables&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota pinim'''<br /> |'''spinimkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat fruit&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''twiʃin halajna'''<br /> |'''shalantwiʃin'''<br /> |&quot;drink water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''twiʃin myndra'''<br /> |'''smyndtwiʃin'''<br /> |&quot;drink alcoholic beverage&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys menira'''<br /> |'''smeniraldesyys'''<br /> |&quot;take care of a child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys apsala'''<br /> |'''sapsaldesyys'''<br /> |&quot;take care of everything&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi tuglaa'''<br /> |'''stuglussi'''<br /> |&quot;hear a noise&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka pœrakʃa'''<br /> |'''spœrakʃaka'''<br /> |&quot;hunt a beast&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak tilmara'''<br /> |'''stilmatrak'''<br /> |&quot;make a mistake&quot;<br /> |}</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Conlangs/Dahur&diff=5378 Conlangs/Dahur 2026-08-23T15:32:25Z <p>Panglossa: /* Personal Pronouns */</p> <hr /> <div>{{DISPLAYTITLE:Dahur}}<br /> {{RightTOC}}<br /> =Phonology=<br /> <br /> ==Vowels==<br /> <br /> Dahur vowels are usually short. Double vowels (ex.: aa, ee &amp;c.) may happen, but they are considered as simple vowel sequences.<br /> <br /> The following vowels qualities are distinguished: <br /> <br /> '''a''' '''e''' '''ɛ''' '''i''' '''o''' '''ɔ''' '''ø''' '''œ''' '''u''' '''y'''<br /> <br /> The diagram below shows the 10 vowels of Dahur.<br /> <br /> [[File:dahurvowels.png|link=]]<br /> <br /> In practice, the vowel /a/ may actually vary between /a/, /ä/ and /ɑ/.<br /> <br /> Merging of /ø/ and /œ/ is fairly common, especially in more informal contexts, as these two vowels mostly don't occur as minimal pair (except in a couple cases).<br /> <br /> ==Consonants==<br /> <br /> Dahur consonants are as follows: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |style=&quot;border-width:0px&quot;|<br /> !Bilabial<br /> !Labiodental<br /> !Alveolar<br /> !Postalveolar<br /> !Palatal<br /> !Velar<br /> !Glottal<br /> |-<br /> !Nasal<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''m'''<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''n'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Plosive<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''p''' '''b'''<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''t''' '''d'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''k''' '''g'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Sibilant fricative<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''s''' '''z'''<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''ʃ''' '''ʒ''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Non-sibilant fricative<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''f''' '''v''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''h'''<br /> |-<br /> !Approximant<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''j'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Tap/Flap/Trill<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''ɾ''' '''r''' <br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !Lateral Approx.<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |style=&quot;text-align:center;font-family:mono&quot;|'''l'''<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The rhotic consonant ('''r''') is in free variation and may be realised either as a tap, a flap or a trill. The trill pronunciation (/r/) is more common at the beginning of a syllable, and even more so at the beginning of a word. The tap/flap pronunciation (/ɾ/) is more common in consonant clusters, especially after a plosive. <br /> <br /> In Dahur phonology, the combinations '''tr''' and '''kʃ''' count as single, independent consonants.<br /> <br /> ==Phonotactics==<br /> A syllable in Dahur must contain one vowel, which may be preceded and/or followed by any number of consonants. In practice, consonant clusters don't usually go beyond four consonants. For that account, '''kʃ''' and '''tɾ''' are always considered as single consonants. <br /> <br /> All consonant sequences are possible. However, in practice, some consonant combinations (ex. '''-hm-''', '''-tɾkʃ-''' &amp;c.) are rare.<br /> <br /> Some studies consider the existence of a glottal stop when a proper consonant is absent. This view is reflected in the writing, which has a special sign for the glottal stop / lack of a consonant. The last consonant of a syllable can be doubled. <br /> <br /> Examples of valid syllables: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''a'''<br /> | '''tɛ'''<br /> | '''en'''<br /> | '''wi'''<br /> | '''koj'''<br /> | '''gjɔ'''<br /> | '''pɾujn'''<br /> | '''kʃtɾa'''<br /> | '''fʃtlœmbz'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> ==Stress==<br /> In the standard pronunciation, words are stressed on the next-to-last syllable. However, if the last syllable contains the consonant /tɾ/, it will be stressed.<br /> <br /> Ex.:<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''&lt;u&gt;ka&lt;/u&gt;nar''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/ˈka.nar/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''os&lt;u&gt;trøn&lt;/u&gt;dɛl''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/os.ˈtɾøn.dɛl/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''&lt;u&gt;tef&lt;/u&gt;ʃiv''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/ˈtef.ʃiv/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''da&lt;u&gt;sutɾ&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/daˈsutɾ/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''maʃkin&lt;u&gt;tɾod&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/maʃ.kinˈtɾod/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Doubled vowels in the last syllable may sound as a long, stressed vowel; however, they are actually two separate vowels, each one in a different syllable, with stress falling on the first one (or on the last, in case that syllable contains the consonant '''tr'''). It is not uncommon to hear an epenthetic '''h''', '''j''' or '''w''' between the two vowels.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> | '''kaj&lt;u&gt;na&lt;/u&gt;ar''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/kaj.ˈna.ar/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/kaj.ˈna.har/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> | '''pakisa&lt;u&gt;atr&lt;/u&gt;''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/pa.ki.sa.ˈatr/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/pa.ki.sa.ˈhatr/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> | '''tøndel&lt;u&gt;li&lt;/u&gt;in''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.in/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.jin/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tøn.del.ˈli.hin/&lt;/tt&gt;<br /> | '''talde&lt;u&gt;sy&lt;/u&gt;ys''' <br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tal.de.ˈsy.ys/&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;br/&gt;<br /> &lt;tt&gt;/tal.de.ˈsy.hys/&lt;/tt&gt; &lt;br/&gt;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> =Writing=<br /> <br /> [[Dahur script]] consists in an alphasyllabary consisting in separate letters indicating consonants, a combination of separate letters and diacritics to indicate vowels, as well as certain special letters for individual syllables.<br /> <br /> =Morphology=<br /> <br /> Dahur is a highly flexional language, with a strong presence of irregular forms.<br /> <br /> Nouns inflect for number, which is basically singular and plural, but there are also occurrences of dual (for things normally occurring in pairs) and singulative (for individual items of things usually found collectively). <br /> <br /> Nouns also inflect for case, usually: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, locative, instrumental, ergative and ablative. Instances of partitive and vocative are also found. The case called ergative is used basically for the agent of the passive voice.<br /> <br /> Adjectives show no agreement to nouns, and inflect for degree (comparatives of superiority, equality, inferiority; relative and absolute superlative).<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> ==Nouns==<br /> <br /> <br /> === Class ===<br /> <br /> Dahurian nouns are divided in five classes, which can be compared to Latin or Greek declensions, as they consist in different inflection patterns, but may also be seen as a form of gender, as class is usually (but not always necessarily) related to the meaning of a noun. <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class 1<br /> |Living beings<br /> |-<br /> !Class 2<br /> |General objects<br /> |-<br /> !Class 3<br /> |Natural elements; insects<br /> |-<br /> !Class 4<br /> |Parts of human body; clothing<br /> |-<br /> !Class 5<br /> |Abstract nouns; traditional imaginary beings<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There are no morphological indications related to noun classes in the nominative singular. The differences appear along the inflection of nouns.<br /> <br /> <br /> === Number ===<br /> Nouns in Dahur have a singular and a plural. The plural ending varies according to noun class and to case. There is also a dual number, which is valid only for nouns normally occurring in pairs. Mass or collective nouns have a singulative inflection, but this is not very systematically indicated.<br /> <br /> <br /> So, for example:<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> !Dual<br /> !Singulative<br /> |-<br /> |class 1<br /> |'''grats'''<br /> &quot;boy&quot;<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> &quot;boys&quot;<br /> | -<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 2<br /> |'''kɛʃev'''<br /> &quot;hammer&quot;<br /> |'''kɛʃevlin'''<br /> &quot;hammers&quot;<br /> |'''kɛʃevs'''<br /> &quot;pair of hammers&quot; (traditionally used by blacksmiths)<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 3<br /> |'''halajn'''<br /> &quot;water&quot;<br /> |'''halejnn'''<br /> &quot;waters&quot; (i.e. in a flood)<br /> |'''halajns'''<br /> &quot;The Two Waters&quot; (the river Okanuma and the lake Kassanjas)<br /> |'''halajny'''<br /> &quot;a drop of water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |class 4<br /> |'''kanar'''<br /> &quot;eye&quot;<br /> |'''kanarni'''<br /> &quot;many eyes&quot; (mostly figuratively)<br /> |'''kanaris'''<br /> &quot;(two/both) eyes&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |-<br /> |class 4<br /> |'''kʃalim'''<br /> &quot;hair&quot;<br /> |'''kʃalimni'''<br /> &quot;(types of) hair&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |'''kʃalimy'''<br /> &quot;a (single) hair&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |class 5<br /> |'''astrønɛl'''<br /> &quot;idea&quot;<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> &quot;ideas&quot;<br /> |'''astrønɛls'''<br /> &quot;a couple ideas&quot;<br /> | -<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The plural in classes 1, 2 and 5 is usually regular, obtained with the respective suffixes ('''-en''', '''-lin''', '''-jan'''). <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 1<br /> |'''katlaj'''<br /> &quot;girlfriend&quot;<br /> |'''katlajen'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''dukʃatr'''<br /> &quot;boss&quot;<br /> |'''dukʃatren'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''egastɛv'''<br /> &quot;farmer&quot;<br /> |'''egastɛven'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 2<br /> |'''takoj'''<br /> &quot;pin&quot;<br /> |'''takojlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''uhpsan'''<br /> &quot;paper&quot;<br /> |'''uhpsanlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''dasutr'''<br /> &quot;document, file&quot;<br /> |'''dasutrlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 5<br /> |'''pɛktegal'''<br /> &quot;angel&quot;<br /> |'''pɛktegaljan'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ostrøndɛl'''<br /> &quot;interruption&quot;<br /> |'''ostrøndɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''piktaraʃ'''<br /> &quot;problem&quot;<br /> |'''piktaraʃjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> In classes 3 and 4, besides the suffixes ('''-n''', '''-ni'''), most nouns suffer some sort of mutation, usually affecting only one vowel but non uncommonly consisting of more significative changes.<br /> <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Class<br /> !Singular<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 3<br /> |'''pakpaki'''<br /> &quot;louse&quot;<br /> |'''pakpɛkin'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''pahalis'''<br /> &quot;leaf&quot;<br /> |'''pahaljen'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''tʃeptal'''<br /> &quot;cloud&quot;<br /> |'''tʃapatlin''', '''tʃaptlin'''<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|class 4<br /> |'''kraus'''<br /> &quot;ear&quot;<br /> |'''krojsni'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ɛmblew'''<br /> &quot;hat&quot;<br /> |'''ɛmbalni'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''krikter'''<br /> &quot;helmet&quot;<br /> |'''kruktni'''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Case ===<br /> Dahur nouns inflect for the following cases: <br /> * '''nominative''' (subject, predicative)<br /> * '''accusative''' (direct object, motion towards)<br /> * '''dative''' (indirect object)<br /> * '''genitive''' (possession, partitive, origin)<br /> * '''locative''' (location, placement)<br /> * '''instrumental''' (instrument, means, company)<br /> * '''ablative''' (adverbial)<br /> * '''ergative''' (agent of the passive voice)<br /> <br /> All cases except the nominative and the ergative can be used with prepositions.<br /> <br /> Certain nouns, mostly nouns indicating human beings, also show a vocative form, mostly formed with the ending '''-e''', but usually irregular. <br /> <br /> Certain nouns, for example nouns indicating mass or food, show a partitive case, usually formed with the ending '''-(i)t'''. <br /> <br /> <br /> === Inflection ===<br /> <br /> Noun declension in Dahur is quite regular, in terms of case and the less usual numbers, viz. the dual and the singulative.<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 1<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 2<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 3<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 4<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Class 5<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |<br /> !Sing.<br /> !Dual<br /> !Pl.<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''-'''<br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-en'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-lin'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-n'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-is'''<br /> |'''-ni'''<br /> |<br /> | - <br /> |'''-s'''<br /> |'''-jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-an'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-lajn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-an'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-jas'''<br /> |'''-nja'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-a'''<br /> |'''-as'''<br /> |'''-jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-un'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-lun'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-wan'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-ujs'''<br /> |'''-nu'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-u'''<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-ujn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''-ak'''<br /> |'''-ask'''<br /> |'''-ken'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ik'''<br /> |'''-isk'''<br /> |'''-link'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-aʃ'''<br /> |'''-ʃas'''<br /> |'''-ʃan'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-iʃ'''<br /> |'''-siʃ'''<br /> |'''-niʃ'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ik'''<br /> |'''-isk'''<br /> |'''-jank'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-emb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-limb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-emb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-bis'''<br /> |'''-nibb'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ebb'''<br /> |'''-eps'''<br /> |'''-jamb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-nom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-lom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-nom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-joms'''<br /> |'''-njom'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |'''-oms'''<br /> |'''-njom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-nɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-lɛnv''', '''-lɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-nɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-jɛfs'''<br /> |'''-njɛv'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-ɛv'''<br /> |'''-ɛfs'''<br /> |'''-njɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-løtr'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-sjøtr'''<br /> |'''-trøjn'''<br /> |<br /> |'''-øtr'''<br /> |'''-søtr'''<br /> |'''-trøjn'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> &lt;!---<br /> * The '''nominative''' case is the basic form of nouns.<br /> * The '''accusative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-a'''. <br /> * The '''dative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-si'''.<br /> * The '''genitive''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ak''' for animate intelligent beings, '''-iʃ''' for animals, '''-is''' for concrete objects and '''-ɔn''' for abstract things.<br /> * The '''locative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-us'''. With animate nouns, the locative can mean &quot;on&quot;, or &quot;with&quot;, as in &quot;carrying with&quot;. <br /> * The '''instrumental''' case is indicated by the enging '''-em''' for animate intelligent beings, '''-om''' for animals, '''-um''' for things.<br /> * The '''ergative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-øtr'''. <br /> * The '''ablative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ɛv'''. <br /> --&gt;<br /> <br /> When an ending starting with a vowel is applied, a final '''-i''' becomes '''-j-''', and a final '''-u''' becomes '''-w-'''; otherwise, an '''-h-''' is added. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''dula''' &quot;babysitter&quot;, '''dulahen''' &quot;babysitters&quot;<br /> * '''agdari''' &quot;prisoner&quot;, '''agdarjen''' &quot;prisoners&quot;<br /> * '''pakpaki''' &quot;louse&quot;, '''pakpakja''' &quot;louse (accus.)&quot;, '''pakpakjaʃ''' &quot;of a louse&quot;, '''pakpakjom''' &quot;by a louse&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> In the following tables, you have some examples of nouns of the various classes, fully inflected for number and case.<br /> <br /> * Class 1: '''grats''' &quot;boy&quot; <br /> * Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' &quot;hammer&quot; <br /> * Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' &quot;cloud&quot; <br /> * Class 4: '''kraus''' &quot;ear&quot; <br /> * Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' &quot;idea&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 1: '''grats''' &quot;boy&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''grats'''<br /> |'''gratss'''<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''gratsa'''<br /> |'''gratsas'''<br /> |'''gratsan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''gratsu'''<br /> |'''gratsus'''<br /> |'''gratsun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''gratsak'''<br /> |'''gratsask'''<br /> |'''gratsken'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''gratsebb'''<br /> |'''gratseps'''<br /> |'''gratsemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''gratsom'''<br /> |'''gratsoms'''<br /> |'''gratsnom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''gratsɛv'''<br /> |'''gratsɛfs'''<br /> |'''gratsnɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''gratsøtr'''<br /> |'''gratssøtr'''<br /> |'''gratsetrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Vocative<br /> |'''gratse'''<br /> |'''gratses'''<br /> |'''gratsen'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' &quot;hammer&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''kɛʃev'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevs'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlin'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''kɛʃeva'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevas'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlajn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''kɛʃevu'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevus'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''kɛʃevik'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevisk'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlink'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''kɛʃevebb'''<br /> |'''kɛʃeveps'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlimb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''kɛʃevom'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevoms'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''kɛʃevɛv'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevɛfs'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevlɛnv''', '''kɛʃevlɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''kɛʃevøtr'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevsøtr'''<br /> |'''kɛʃevløtr'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' &quot;cloud&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''tʃeptal'''<br /> |'''tʃeptals'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlin'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''tʃeptala'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalas'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlijan''', '''tʃaptljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''tʃeptalu'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalus'''<br /> |'''tʃaptliwan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''tʃeptalaʃ'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalʃas'''<br /> |'''tʃaptliʃan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''tʃeptalebb'''<br /> |'''tʃeptaleps'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlijemb''', '''tʃaptljemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''tʃeptalom'''<br /> |'''tʃeptaloms'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlinom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''tʃeptalɛv'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalɛfs'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlinɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''tʃeptaløtr'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalsøtr'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlitrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''tʃeptalt'''<br /> |'''tʃeptalts'''<br /> |'''tʃaptlint'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 4: '''kraus''' &quot;ear&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''kraus'''<br /> |'''krausis'''<br /> |'''krojsni'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''krausa'''<br /> |'''krausjas'''<br /> |'''krojsnja'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''krausu'''<br /> |'''krausujs'''<br /> |'''krojsnu'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''krausiʃ'''<br /> |'''kraussiʃ'''<br /> |'''krojsniʃ'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''krausebb'''<br /> |'''krauseps'''<br /> |'''krojsnibb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''krausom'''<br /> |'''krausoms'''<br /> |'''krojsnjom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''krausɛv'''<br /> |'''krausɛfs'''<br /> |'''krojsnjɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''krausøtr'''<br /> |'''krausjøtr'''<br /> |'''krojstrøjn'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' &quot;idea&quot; <br /> |-<br /> !<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''astrønɛls'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''astrønɛla'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlas'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''astrønɛlu'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlus'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlujn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''astrønɛlik'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlisk'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljank'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''astrønɛlebb'''<br /> |'''astrønɛleps'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljamb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''astrønɛlom'''<br /> |'''astrønɛloms'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlnjom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''astrønɛlɛv'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlɛfs'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlnjɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''astrønɛløtr'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlsøtr'''<br /> |'''astrønɛltrøjn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''astrønɛlt'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlts'''<br /> |'''astrønɛljant'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Articles ==<br /> <br /> === Definite Article === <br /> <br /> The definite article inflects for case and number, and is quite irregular. <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> !Singulative <br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''tru'''<br /> |'''gas'''<br /> |'''tann'''<br /> |'''try'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''na'''<br /> |'''ga'''<br /> |'''ta'''<br /> |'''ny'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''kʃu'''<br /> |'''gu'''<br /> |'''tun'''<br /> |'''kʃu'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''kis'''<br /> |'''gak'''<br /> |'''tak'''<br /> |'''kis'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''debb'''<br /> |'''gebb'''<br /> |'''tebb'''<br /> |'''debb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''trom'''<br /> |'''gom'''<br /> |'''tom'''<br /> |'''trom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative <br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |'''gɛv'''<br /> |'''tɛv'''<br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''trø'''<br /> |'''gøtr'''<br /> |'''tøtr'''<br /> |'''trø'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Indefinite Article === <br /> <br /> Dahur has no proper indefinite article. <br /> <br /> If it's really necessary to mark a noun phrase as indefinite, an indefinite pronoun may be used. The most common is '''lum''' (invariable), meaning &quot;some&quot;, &quot;a certain&quot; &amp;c.<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> == Prepositions ==<br /> <br /> Prepositions in Dahur require the noun in one of the following cases: <br /> <br /> * accusative<br /> * dative<br /> * genitive<br /> * ablative<br /> * instrumental<br /> * locative<br /> <br /> The nominative and the ergative are '''never''' used with prepositions. <br /> <br /> In the table below you have the most common Dahur prepositions: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Preposition<br /> !Case<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''dun'''<br /> |''locative'', ''accusative of movement''<br /> |inside<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''yin'''<br /> |''dative''<br /> |for, in behalf of<br /> |-<br /> |''accusative''<br /> |towards<br /> |-<br /> |'''ari''', '''ar'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |from, out of<br /> |-<br /> |'''yuʃ'''<br /> |''genitive'', ''ablative''<br /> |because of<br /> |-<br /> |'''vøj'''<br /> |''locative''<br /> |through<br /> |-<br /> |'''syn'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |near<br /> |-<br /> |'''kʃe'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |since, ago<br /> |-<br /> |'''pɛn'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |besides, next to<br /> |-<br /> |'''lujg'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |in front of<br /> |-<br /> |'''mœh'''<br /> |''ablative''<br /> |without<br /> |-<br /> |'''sto'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |on, on top of<br /> |-<br /> |'''krɔj'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |under<br /> |-<br /> |'''tjɛs'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |before (time)<br /> |-<br /> |'''gwaj'''<br /> |''accusative''<br /> |after (time)<br /> |-<br /> |'''fyj'''<br /> |''ablative''<br /> |during<br /> |-<br /> |'''vlen'''<br /> |''instrumental''<br /> |despite<br /> |-<br /> |'''uhk'''<br /> |''genitive''<br /> |except<br /> |-<br /> |'''uzd'''<br /> |''dative''<br /> |instead of<br /> |-<br /> |'''blas'''<br /> |''locative''; ''accusative of movement''<br /> |behind<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> * '''yin na hedana''' &quot;towards the house&quot;<br /> * '''dun na hedana''' &quot;into the house&quot;<br /> * '''ar kis hedanik''' &quot;from the house&quot;, &quot;out of the house&quot;<br /> * '''syn debb hedanebb''' &quot;near the house&quot;<br /> * '''syn na hedana''' &quot;going near of the house&quot;<br /> * '''pɛn debb hedanebb''' &quot;besides the house&quot;, &quot;next to the house&quot;<br /> * '''pɛn na hedana''' &quot;going next to the house&quot;<br /> * '''lujg debb hedanebb''' &quot;in front to the house&quot;<br /> * '''lujg na hedana''' &quot;going to the front of the house&quot;<br /> * '''mœh dɛv hedanɛv''' &quot;without the house&quot;<br /> * '''sto debb hedanebb''' &quot;on top of the house&quot;<br /> * '''sto na hedana''' &quot;going onto (the top of) the house&quot;<br /> * '''krɔj debb hedanebb''' &quot;under the house&quot;<br /> * '''uzd kʃu hedanu''' &quot;instead of the house&quot;<br /> * '''blas debb hedanebb''' &quot;behind the house&quot;<br /> * '''blas na hedana''' &quot;going behind the house&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> == Adjectives ==<br /> <br /> === Attributive Adjectives ===<br /> Attributive adjectives in Dahur are invariable and come before the noun. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''fɛren grats''' &quot;a smart boy&quot;<br /> * '''duʃ halajn''' &quot;clean water&quot;<br /> * '''selak kanaris''' &quot;pretty eyes&quot;<br /> <br /> A few attributes may be expressed by affixes to the noun, instead of the separate adjective. The most common ones are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar'''<br /> |'''-os''' <br /> (usually deleting the last vowel of the original noun)<br /> |&quot;big&quot;, &quot;large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr'''<br /> |'''-in-''' <br /> (before the last vowel of the or. noun)<br /> |&quot;small&quot;, &quot;little&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani'''<br /> |'''-(t)ta-''' <br /> (before the second vowel of the or. noun)<br /> |&quot;good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''<br /> |'''-aar'''<br /> |&quot;bad&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !With Adjective<br /> !With Affixed Form<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''piktarʃos''' <br /> |&quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''piktarinaʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a little problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''attastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a good idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''astrønɛlaar'''<br /> |&quot;a bad idea&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Certain adjectives have a special, shortened form, which is prefixed to nouns when used attributively. <br /> The most common ones are: <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Affix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar'''<br /> |'''nah-''' <br /> |&quot;big&quot;, &quot;large&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr'''<br /> |'''ki-''' <br /> (doubles the initial consonant of the noun)<br /> |&quot;small&quot;, &quot;little&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani'''<br /> |'''suw-''' ('''suww-''' before vowels)<br /> |&quot;good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''<br /> |'''dag-''' ('''dagg-''' before vowels)<br /> |&quot;bad&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin'''<br /> |'''sin-''' <br /> |&quot;new&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ'''<br /> |'''dom-''' <br /> |&quot;old&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''mahhalis'''<br /> |'''mah-''' <br /> |&quot;ancient&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''', '''makʃølin'''<br /> |'''møkʃ-''' <br /> |&quot;important&quot;, &quot;great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan'''<br /> |'''tos-''', '''tan-''' <br /> |&quot;beautiful&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki'''<br /> |'''killi-''' <br /> |&quot;false&quot;, &quot;fake&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Examples: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !With Adjective<br /> !With Prefix<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''nahpiktaraʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr piktaraʃ'''<br /> |'''kippiktaraʃ''' <br /> |&quot;a small problem&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''suwwastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a good idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''daggastrønɛl'''<br /> |&quot;a bad idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin dasutr'''<br /> |'''sindasutr''' <br /> |&quot;a new document&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ hedan'''<br /> |'''domhedan''' <br /> |&quot;an old house&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''mahhalis kataʃtevan'''<br /> |'''mahkataʃtevan''' <br /> |&quot;an ancient civilization&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen dasutr''', '''makʃølin dasutr'''<br /> |'''møkʃdasutr''' <br /> |&quot;an important document&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen astrønɛl''', '''makʃølin astrønɛl'''<br /> |'''møkʃastrønɛl''' <br /> |&quot;a great idea&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan dummal'''<br /> |'''tosdummal''', '''tandummal''' <br /> |&quot;a beautiful song&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki bɔrakʃ'''<br /> |'''killibɔrakʃ''' <br /> |&quot;false news&quot;, &quot;fake news&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Predicative Adjectives ===<br /> <br /> An adjective used in predicative function is invariable. Only the full forms of adjectives can be used predicatively. <br /> <br /> Usually a linking verb is employed. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru astrønɛl laje makʃølen.''' || The idea is great.<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru grats alanje befitra.''' || The boy is tired.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> There is also the possibility of turning adjectives into verbs. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru astrønɛl makʃølnaje.''' || The idea is great.<br /> |-<br /> |'''Tru grats abefitranje.''' || The boy is tired.<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The most common way to make an adjective into a verb, implying the idea of &quot;be&quot;, is the suffix '''-a-''', which may cause some change in the last syllable of the original adjective. If the adjective already ends in '''-a''', there is no change. Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''' <br /> &quot;great&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølna''' <br /> &quot;be great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;be tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani''' <br /> &quot;good&quot;<br /> |'''suwanja''' <br /> &quot;be good&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''' <br /> &quot;bad&quot;<br /> |'''daggusa''' <br /> &quot;be bad&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulin''' <br /> &quot;new&quot;<br /> |'''sulna''' <br /> &quot;be new&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ''' <br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dɛtra''' <br /> &quot;be old&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan''' <br /> &quot;beautiful&quot;<br /> |'''tossana''', '''tosna''' <br /> &quot;be beautiful&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''trapter''' <br /> &quot;unique&quot;<br /> |'''traptra''' <br /> &quot;be unique&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃɔtma''' <br /> &quot;sure&quot;, &quot;certain&quot;<br /> |'''ʃɔtama''' <br /> &quot;be sure&quot;, &quot;be certain&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kanikli''' <br /> &quot;appropriate&quot;<br /> |'''kankilja''' <br /> &quot;be appropriate&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tubbar''' <br /> &quot;white&quot;<br /> |'''tubabra''' <br /> &quot;be white&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kindis''' <br /> &quot;clear&quot;<br /> |'''kinitsa''' <br /> &quot;be clear&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Another suffix is '''-(a)st(a)-''', meaning &quot;to get&quot; or &quot;to become&quot;. The first optional '''-a-''' appears when necessary, to avoid unsuitable consonant clusters, while the final '''-a''' is only used in the infinitive form of the verb - i.e., without any suffixes. There are some irregular formations.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølen''' <br /> &quot;great&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølnasta''' <br /> &quot;become great&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitra''' <br /> &quot;tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitrasta''' <br /> &quot;get tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''nahar''' <br /> &quot;big, large&quot;<br /> |'''nahasta''', '''narasta''' <br /> &quot;get big&quot;, &quot;increase&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kitr''' <br /> &quot;little, small&quot;<br /> |'''kitrasta''', '''katrasta''', '''kirrasta''' <br /> &quot;get smaller&quot;, &quot;decrease&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwani''' <br /> &quot;good&quot;<br /> |'''suwanasta'''<br /> &quot;become good&quot;<br /> <br /> '''suwasta''', '''sawasta''', '''suwnasta''' <br /> <br /> &quot;get better&quot;, &quot;improve&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''daggus''' , '''daggussa'''<br /> &quot;bad&quot;<br /> |'''daggusasta''', '''daggussasta''' <br /> &quot;become bad&quot;<br /> <br /> '''daggasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get worse&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ'''<br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛsta'''<br /> &quot;become old&quot;<br /> <br /> '''dotrasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get older&quot;, &quot;to age&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossan'''<br /> &quot;beautiful<br /> |'''tossanasta'''<br /> &quot;become beautiful&quot;<br /> <br /> '''tossasta''', '''tosnasta'''<br /> <br /> &quot;get prettier&quot;, &quot;beautify&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''abliki'''<br /> &quot;false&quot;, &quot;fake&quot;<br /> |'''ablikasta'''<br /> &quot;become invalid&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> A few other suffixes perform similar tasks, with more specific meanings. These are usually quite regular. The most productive among these suffixes are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-we'''<br /> |&quot;to remain&quot;, &quot;still be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-kas'''<br /> |&quot;to seem&quot;, &quot;to appear&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-ʃyn'''<br /> |&quot;to pretend to be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-dobb(a)-'''<br /> |&quot;to cease to be&quot;, &quot;to be no longer&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''-guj'''<br /> |&quot;to be a little bit&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''nøssar''' <br /> &quot;calm&quot;<br /> |'''nøssarwe''' &quot;remain calm&quot;, &quot;keep calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarkaʃ''' &quot;seem/appear calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarʃyn''' &quot;pretend to be calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssardobba''' &quot;cease to be calm&quot;<br /> <br /> '''nøssarguj''' &quot;be a little calm&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛ''' <br /> &quot;old&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛkaʃ''' &quot;seem/appear old&quot;<br /> <br /> '''dotrɛguj''' &quot;be a little old&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Comparative === <br /> The comparative of superiority of an adjective can be made by adding the suffix '''-ju''' to the stem. This suffix doubles a preceeding consonant, or becomes '''-jju''' when preceeded by a vowel. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''fɛrennju grats''' &quot;a smarter boy&quot;<br /> * '''duʃʃju halajn''' &quot;cleaner water&quot;<br /> * '''selakkju kanaris''' &quot;prettier eyes&quot;<br /> * '''naharrju piktaraʃ''' &quot;a big problem&quot;<br /> * '''kittrju piktaraʃ''' &quot;a little problem&quot; <br /> * '''suwanijju astrønɛl''' &quot;a better idea&quot;<br /> * '''daggussju''' / '''daggussajju astrønɛl''' &quot;a worse idea&quot;<br /> * '''dotrɛjju pɛten''' &quot;an older book&quot;<br /> <br /> Comparative adjectives may be turned into verbs regularly with the suffix '''-a''', which then becomes '''-wa'''. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Adjective<br /> !Verb<br /> |-<br /> |'''makʃølennju''' <br /> &quot;greater&quot;<br /> |'''makʃølennjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be greater&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''befitrajju''' <br /> &quot;more tired&quot;<br /> |'''befitrajjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be more tired&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''suwanijju''' <br /> &quot;better&quot;<br /> |'''suwanijjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be better&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''sulinnju''' <br /> &quot;newer&quot;<br /> |'''sulinnjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be newer&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''dotrɛjju''' <br /> &quot;older&quot;<br /> |'''dotrɛjjuwa'''<br /> &quot;be older&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''tossannju''' <br /> &quot;more beautiful&quot;<br /> |'''tossannjuwa''' <br /> &quot;be more beautiful&quot;<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The complement of a comparison, corresponding to the conjunction &quot;than&quot;, is placed in the ablative case. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''Nuv pɛten laej suwanijju tuhafɛv.''' &quot;This book is better than that one&quot;<br /> * '''Nuv pɛten suwanijjuwaej tuhafɛv.''' (idem)<br /> * '''Tru dukʃatr laej dotrɛjju dɛv egastɛvɛv.''' &quot;The boss is older than the farmer&quot;<br /> * '''Tru dukʃatr dotrɛjjuwaej dɛv egastɛvɛv.''' (idem)<br /> <br /> == Numerals ==<br /> The basic cardinal numbers are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |0 || '''kal''', '''kahtral'''<br /> |-<br /> |1 || '''mihen'''<br /> |-<br /> |2 || '''dahas'''<br /> |-<br /> |3 || '''travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |4 || '''gazen'''<br /> |-<br /> |5 || '''kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |6 || '''pinjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |7 || '''høtak'''<br /> |-<br /> |8 || '''magɛl'''<br /> |-<br /> |9 || '''donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |10 || '''zɛhɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |11 || '''zɛhɛv mihen''', '''zɛvhen'''<br /> |-<br /> |12 || '''zɛhɛv dahas''', '''zɛvdas'''<br /> |-<br /> |13 || '''zɛhɛv travis''', '''zɛvtras'''<br /> |-<br /> |14 || '''zɛhɛv gazen''', '''zɛvzen'''<br /> |-<br /> |15 || '''zɛhɛv kɛʃav''', '''zɛvkʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |16 || '''zɛhɛv pinjan''', '''zɛvpan'''<br /> |-<br /> |17 || '''zɛhɛv høtak''','''zɛvhøk'''<br /> |-<br /> |18 || '''zɛhɛv magɛl''', '''zɛvmal'''<br /> |-<br /> |19 || '''zɛhɛv donwaʒ''', '''zɛvdaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |20 || '''dahassɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |30 || '''travissɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |40 || '''gazennɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |50 || '''kɛʃavvɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |60 || '''pinjannɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |70 || '''høtakkɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |80 || '''magɛllɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |90 || '''donwaʒʒɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> |100 || '''lakin'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,000 || '''tatrimi'''<br /> |-<br /> |10,000 || '''zɛhɛv tatrimi'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Numbers are composed by joining the base units above, from bigger to lower. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |23 || '''dahassɛv travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |45 || '''gazennɛv kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |67 || '''pinjannɛv høtak'''<br /> |-<br /> |89 || '''magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |123 || '''lakin dahassɛv travis'''<br /> |-<br /> |456 || '''gazen lakin kɛʃavvɛv pinjan'''<br /> |-<br /> |789 || '''høtak lakin magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,234 || '''tatrimi dahas lakin travissɛv gazen'''<br /> |-<br /> |5,678 || '''kɛʃav tatrimi pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl'''<br /> |-<br /> |12,345 || '''zɛvdas tatrimi travis lakin gazennɛv kɛʃav'''<br /> |-<br /> |678,910 || '''pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl tatrimi donwaʒ lakin zɛhɛv'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> Ordinal numbers are created with the suffix '''-iki'''. Ex.: <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |1st || '''miheniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |2nd || '''dahasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |3rd || '''travisiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |4th || '''gazeniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |5th || '''kɛʃaviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |6th || '''pinjaniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |7th || '''høtakiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |8th || '''magɛliki'''<br /> |-<br /> |9th || '''donwaʒiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |10th || '''zɛhɛviki''', '''zɛhviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |11th || '''zɛvheniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |12th || '''zɛvdasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |13th || '''zɛvtrasiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |14th || '''zɛvzeniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |15th || '''zɛvkʃaviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |16th || '''zɛvpaniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |17th || '''zɛvhøkiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |18th || '''zɛvmaliki'''<br /> |-<br /> |19th || '''zɛvdaʒiki'''<br /> |-<br /> |20th || '''dahassɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |30th || '''travissɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |40th || '''gazennɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |50th || '''kɛʃavvɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |60th || '''pinjannɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |70th || '''høtakkɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |80th || '''magɛllɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |90th || '''donwaʒʒɛviki'''<br /> |-<br /> |100th || '''lakiniki'''<br /> |-<br /> |1,000th || '''tatrimiiki'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> == Pronouns ==<br /> <br /> === Personal Pronouns ===<br /> Personal Pronouns in Dahur indicate person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and number (singular, dual, plural).<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|1st Person<br /> |'''dɛ''' &quot;I&quot; , &quot;me&quot;<br /> |'''ʃes''' &quot;we both&quot;<br /> |'''ʃɛn''' &quot;we&quot;, &quot;us&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''dɛ'''<br /> |'''ʃes'''<br /> |'''ʃɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''dɛa''', '''da'''<br /> |'''ʃeas''', '''ʃas'''<br /> |'''ʃan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''dɛw''', '''du'''<br /> |'''ʃeus''', '''ʃews''', '''ʃus'''<br /> |'''ʃɛun''', '''ʃɛwn''', '''ʃun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''dɛk'''<br /> |'''ʃesk'''<br /> |'''ʃɛkɛn''', '''ʃkɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''dɛbb'''<br /> |'''ʃeps'''<br /> |'''ʃɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''dɛm'''<br /> |'''ʃems'''<br /> |'''ʃɛom''', '''ʃom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''dɛv'''<br /> |'''ʃɛfs'''<br /> |'''ʃɛɛv''', '''ʃɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''dɛjøtr''', '''dɛtr'''<br /> |'''ʃesøtr'''<br /> |'''ʃɛtrøn''', '''ʃtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''dɛt'''<br /> |'''ʃets'''<br /> |'''ʃɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|2nd Person<br /> |'''hej''' &quot;you (sg.), thou&quot;<br /> |'''kwes''' &quot;you both&quot;<br /> |'''kwɛn''' &quot;you (pl.)&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''hej'''<br /> |'''kwes'''<br /> |'''kwɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''heja''', '''ja'''<br /> |'''kweas''', '''kwas'''<br /> |'''kwɛan''', '''kwan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''heju''', '''ju'''<br /> |'''kweus'''<br /> |'''kwɛun''', '''kun'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''heik''', '''hejik'''<br /> |'''kwesk'''<br /> |'''kwɛnek''', '''kwɛnk'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''heibb''', '''hibb'''<br /> |'''kweps'''<br /> |'''kwɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''heim''', '''him'''<br /> |'''kwems'''<br /> |'''kwɛom''', '''kwɛm''', '''kwom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''hejɛv''', '''jɛv'''<br /> |'''kwɛfs'''<br /> |'''kwɛɛv''', '''kwɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''hejøtr''', '''hjøtr'''<br /> |'''kwesøtr'''<br /> |'''kwɛtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Vocative<br /> |'''heje'''<br /> |'''kwejes'''<br /> |'''kwɛjɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''hɛt'''<br /> |'''kwets'''<br /> |'''kwɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|3rd Person<br /> |'''nar''' &quot;he&quot;, &quot;she&quot;, &quot;it&quot;<br /> |'''ras''' &quot;they both&quot;<br /> |'''ren''' &quot;they&quot;, &quot;them&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''nar'''<br /> |'''ras'''<br /> |'''rɛn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''nara''', '''ra'''<br /> |'''ras'''<br /> |'''rɛan''', '''ran'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''naru''', '''ru'''<br /> |'''raus''', '''raws''', '''rus'''<br /> |'''rɛun''', '''rɛwn''', '''run'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''narɛk''', '''rɛk'''<br /> |'''resk'''<br /> |'''rɛkɛn''', '''ɛrken'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''narebb''', '''rebb'''<br /> |'''reps'''<br /> |'''rɛmb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''narom''', '''rom'''<br /> |'''rems'''<br /> |'''rɛnom''', '''rom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''narɛv''', '''rɛv'''<br /> |'''rɛfs'''<br /> |'''rɛɛv''', '''rɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''narøtr''', '''røtr'''<br /> |'''resøtr'''<br /> |'''rɛtrøn''', '''ɛrtrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> |'''rɛt'''<br /> |'''rets'''<br /> |'''rɛnt'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The '''genitive''' forms work as possessive pronouns. In that case, the definite article is optional. Ex.: <br /> * '''tru dɛk astrønɛl''', '''dɛk astrønɛl''' &quot;my idea&quot;<br /> * '''na heik kʃalima''', '''heik kʃalima''' &quot;your hair (accus.)&quot;<br /> * '''trom narɛk kɛʃevom''', '''narɛk kɛʃevom''' &quot;with his/her hammer (instr.)&quot;<br /> * '''tu dɛk menirun''', '''dɛk menirun''' &quot;to my children (dat.)&quot;<br /> <br /> Object pronouns usually come before the verb. The shorter, unstressed version is preferred. Ex.: <br /> * '''Ja angenus.''' &quot;I can see you (sing.).&quot;<br /> * '''Kwas angenus.''' &quot;I can see you two.&quot;<br /> * '''Kwan angenus.''' &quot;I can see you (pl.).&quot;<br /> * '''Ra angenus.''' &quot;I can see it/him/her.&quot;<br /> * '''Ras angenus.''' &quot;I can see them both.&quot;<br /> * '''Ran angenus.''' &quot;I can see them.&quot;<br /> * '''Da angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see me.&quot;<br /> * '''ʃas angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see us both.&quot;<br /> * '''ʃan angenej.''' &quot;He/she can see us.&quot;<br /> <br /> An object pronoun may also appear after the verb. In that case, the preference is for the longer, stressed versions. Ex.:<br /> * '''Angenus ja/heja.''' &quot;I can see you (sing.).&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus kweas/kwas.''' &quot;I can see you two.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus kwɛan/kwan.''' &quot;I can see you (pl.).&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus nara/ra.''' &quot;I can see it/him/her.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus ras.''' &quot;I can see them both.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenus rɛan/ran.''' &quot;I can see them.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej dɛa/da.''' &quot;He/she can see me.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej ʃeas/ʃas.''' &quot;He/she can see us both.&quot;<br /> * '''Angenej ʃan.''' &quot;He/she can see us.&quot;<br /> <br /> The most common case for a verb complement is the accusative. However, verbs may require different cases. Ex.: <br /> * '''Kun dagsuttoj!''' &quot;It will harm you!&quot; / &quot;It will be harmful to you!&quot; ('''dagusta''' &quot;harm, be harmful&quot; + dat.)<br /> * '''Ja/Ju darʃinɔn.''' &quot;We trust you.&quot; ('''darʃin''' &quot;trust&quot; + acc./dat.)<br /> * '''Poglattindsa narɛv/rɛv''' &quot;I didn't use it.&quot; ('''poglar''' &quot;use&quot; + abl.)<br /> * '''Ra twiʃnettmis.''' &quot;You drank it (all).&quot; / '''Rɛt twiʃnettmis.''' &quot;You drank (some of) it.&quot; '''twiʃin''' &quot;drink&quot; +acc. (whole), +part. (specific amount)<br /> <br /> === Demonstrative Pronouns ===<br /> The main demonstrative pronouns are: <br /> <br /> * '''nuv''' &quot;this, these&quot;<br /> * '''tuhaf''' &quot;that, those&quot;<br /> <br /> When accompanying a noun, they behave as adjectives and are not inflected. <br /> <br /> When used on their own, they stand as nouns and are inflected according to the class of the intended noun. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''Nuv grats laej fɛrennju nuvɛv.''' &quot;This boy is smarter than this one.&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> === Interrogative Pronouns ===<br /> <br /> === Indefinite Pronouns ===<br /> <br /> === Relative Pronoun ===<br /> The main relative pronoun in Dahur is '''jao''', as shown in the following table. <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Singular<br /> !Dual<br /> !Plural<br /> |-<br /> !Nominative<br /> |'''jao'''<br /> |'''jes'''<br /> |'''jen'''<br /> |-<br /> !Accusative<br /> |'''jaa''', '''ja'''<br /> |'''jeas''', '''jas'''<br /> |'''jaan''', '''jan'''<br /> |-<br /> !Dative<br /> |'''jau''', '''jaw'''<br /> |'''jeus''', '''jews'''<br /> |'''jeun''', '''jewn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Genitive<br /> |'''jak'''<br /> |'''jesk'''<br /> |'''jenk'''<br /> |-<br /> !Locative<br /> |'''jaebb'''<br /> |'''jaeps'''<br /> |'''jaemb'''<br /> |-<br /> !Instrumental<br /> |'''jaom'''<br /> |'''jaoms'''<br /> |'''jaom'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ablative<br /> |'''jaɛv'''<br /> |'''jaɛfs'''<br /> |'''janɛv'''<br /> |-<br /> !Ergative<br /> |'''jaøtr'''<br /> |'''jasøtr'''<br /> |'''jatrøn'''<br /> |-<br /> !Partitive<br /> | - <br /> |'''jets'''<br /> |'''jent'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The pronoun agrees in number with the antecedent, but its case is determined by its function in the subordinate clause. Ex.:<br /> * '''tru grats jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;the boy (nom.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''na gratsa jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;the boy (accus.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''kʃu gratsu jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;to the boy (dat.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''kis gratsak jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;of the boy (gen.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''trø gratsøtr jao ateʃfanej''' &quot;by the boy (erg.) who (nom.) is running away&quot; <br /> * '''tann gratsen jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;the boys (nom.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''ta gratsan jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;the boys (accus.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tun gratsun jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;to the boys (dat.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tak gratsken jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr gratsetrøn jen ateʃfanɛw''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) who (nom.) are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tru grats jaa kahettsa''' &quot;the boy (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''na gratsa jaa kahettsa''' &quot;the boy (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''kʃu gratsu jaa kahettsa''' &quot;to the boy (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''kis gratsak jaa kahettsa''' &quot;of the boy (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''trø gratsøtr jaa kahettsa''' &quot;by the boy (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tann gratsen jaan kahettsa''' &quot;the boys (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''ta gratsan jaan kahettsa''' &quot;the boys (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tun gratsun jaan kahettsa''' &quot;to the boys (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tak gratsken jaan kahettsa''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr gratsetrøn jaan kahettsa''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw&quot; <br /> <br /> Besides this pronoun, relative clauses may also be formed with participles. <br /> <br /> Ex.:<br /> <br /> * '''tru ateʃfanur grats''' &quot;the boy (nom.) who is running away&quot; <br /> * '''na ateʃfanur gratsa''' &quot;the boy (accus.) who is running away&quot; <br /> * '''tak ateʃfanur gratsken''' &quot;of the boys (gen.) who are running away&quot; <br /> * '''tru dɛtr kahettek grats''', '''tru grats dɛtr kahettek''' &quot;the boy (nom.) whom I saw&quot; <br /> * '''tøtr dɛtr kahettek gratsetrøn''', '''tøtr gratsetrøn dɛtr kahettek''' &quot;by the boys (erg.) whom I saw&quot;<br /> <br /> == Verbs ==<br /> <br /> === Finite Forms ===<br /> <br /> Verbs in Dahur have different stems indicating aspect. The conjugation uses different sets of endings to indicate tense or time. <br /> <br /> The basic verb stems are: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Aspect<br /> !Meaning<br /> !Form<br /> |-<br /> |Generic<br /> |''verbal idea without a specific context, time or aspect''<br /> |the basic stem of the verb<br /> |-<br /> |Cursive (Progressive; Continuous)<br /> |''action ongoing at the moment of reference<br /> |prefix '''a-''' and suffix '''-(a)n-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Aorist<br /> |''a complete or punctual action''<br /> |suffix '''-(e)tt-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Perfect<br /> |''the result of an action that happened before the reference time''<br /> |suffix '''-(l)l(a)-'''<br /> |-<br /> |Unrealised (Future)<br /> |''action as not realised in relation to the reference time''<br /> |prefix '''u-''' and suffix '''-(u)ʃ-''' <br /> |-<br /> |Conditional<br /> |''irrealis, usually an action depending on another''<br /> |prefix '''i-''' (doubling the initial consonant) and suffix '''-i-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> Stem formation is often irregular. <br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Generic<br /> !Cursive<br /> !Aorist<br /> !Perfect<br /> !Unrealised<br /> !Conditional <br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmal-'''<br /> |'''akʃmalan-'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalett-'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalla-'''<br /> |'''ukaʃmaluʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkaʃmali-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''la-'''<br /> |'''alan-'''<br /> |'''latt-'''<br /> |'''lalla-'''<br /> |'''ulauʃ-'''<br /> |'''illai-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''wennin''' &quot;live&quot; <br /> |'''wennin-'''<br /> |'''awann-'''<br /> |'''wennett-'''<br /> |'''wennilla-'''<br /> |'''uwenninʃ-'''<br /> |'''iwennini-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadra-'''<br /> |'''agandran-'''<br /> |'''gadrett-'''<br /> |'''gadralla-'''<br /> |'''ugadruʃ-'''<br /> |'''iggadri-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''tefʃiv''' &quot;flee&quot;<br /> |'''tefʃiv-'''<br /> |'''ateʃfan-'''<br /> |'''tefʃivett-'''<br /> |'''tefʃivla-'''<br /> |'''utefʃivuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittefʃivi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maʃkintɾod''' &quot;represent&quot;<br /> |'''maʃkintɾod-'''<br /> |'''amaʃkintɾon-'''<br /> |'''maʃkintɾott-'''<br /> |'''maʃkintɾolla-'''<br /> |'''umaʃkintɾotʃ-'''<br /> |'''immaʃkintɾodi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kajnaar''' &quot;jump&quot;<br /> |'''kajnaar-'''<br /> |'''akajnaan-'''<br /> |'''kajnerett-'''<br /> |'''kajnaalla-'''<br /> |'''ukajnaaruʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkajnaari-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys''' &quot;take care of&quot;<br /> |'''taldesyys-'''<br /> |'''ataldesyyn-'''<br /> |'''taldesyyst-'''<br /> |'''taldesyyll-'''<br /> |'''utaldesyyʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittaldesyysi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kota-'''<br /> |'''ankon-'''<br /> |'''kotatt-'''<br /> |'''kekolla-'''<br /> |'''ukotuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkoti-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussi-'''<br /> |'''ahsejn-'''<br /> |'''hust-'''<br /> |'''huzilla-'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ihusseji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''ken-''', '''kena-'''<br /> |'''angen-'''<br /> |'''kahett-'''<br /> |'''kenalla-''', '''kralla-'''<br /> |'''ukunuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkeni-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''mend''' &quot;become&quot;<br /> |'''mend-'''<br /> |'''amdan-'''<br /> |'''menett-'''<br /> |'''mendla-'''<br /> |'''umenduʃ-'''<br /> |'''immendi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustaj-''', '''ustaji-'''<br /> |'''anstajn-''', '''anstajin-'''<br /> |'''ustatt-''', '''ustitt-'''<br /> |'''ustalla-''', '''ustilla-'''<br /> |'''ustajuʃ-'''<br /> |'''istaji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''maj-'''<br /> |'''amann-'''<br /> |'''menett-'''<br /> |'''mjalla-'''<br /> |'''umujuʃ-'''<br /> |'''immaji-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trak-'''<br /> |'''atrakan-'''<br /> |'''tetrakett-'''<br /> |'''ketralla-'''<br /> |'''utrakʃ-'''<br /> |'''ittraggi-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''pakt''' &quot;understand&quot;<br /> |'''pakt-'''<br /> |'''ampakn-'''<br /> |'''pakett-'''<br /> |'''paktalla-'''<br /> |'''upaktuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ippakti-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''durʃin''' &quot;seem, appear&quot;<br /> |'''durʃin-'''<br /> |'''adurʃan-'''<br /> |'''durʃint-'''<br /> |'''durʃilla-'''<br /> |'''udurʃinʃ-'''<br /> |'''iddurʃini-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka''' &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |'''ʃaka-'''<br /> |'''aʃkan-'''<br /> |'''ʃakkatt-'''<br /> |'''ʃakalla-'''<br /> |'''uʃakkuʃ-'''<br /> |'''iʃakki-'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kʃa''' [passive voice auxiliary]<br /> |'''kʃa-'''<br /> |'''akʃan-'''<br /> |'''kʃatt-'''<br /> |'''kʃalla-'''<br /> |'''ukʃuʃ-'''<br /> |'''ikkʃi-'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The personal endings are : <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Present<br /> !Past<br /> !Future<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''-us'''<br /> |'''-sa'''<br /> |'''-os'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''-im'''<br /> |'''-mis'''<br /> |'''-om'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''-ej'''<br /> |'''-jes'''<br /> |'''-oj'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''-ɔn'''<br /> |'''-sɔn'''<br /> |'''-on'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''-ib'''<br /> |'''-ips'''<br /> |'''-ob'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''-ɛw'''<br /> |'''-sɛw'''<br /> |'''-ow'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The following combinations of stem + ending set occur: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> |Present<br /> |Past<br /> |Future<br /> |-<br /> |Generic<br /> !Simple <br /> Present<br /> !Habitual<br /> Past (&quot;used to&quot;)<br /> !Indefinite<br /> Future<br /> |-<br /> |Cursive<br /> !Present<br /> Continuous<br /> !Past <br /> Continuous<br /> !Future<br /> Progressive<br /> |-<br /> |Aorist<br /> |<br /> !Simple <br /> Past (Aorist)<br /> !Definite Future<br /> (Specific, Punctual)<br /> |-<br /> |Perfect<br /> !Present <br /> Perfect<br /> !Past<br /> Perfect<br /> !Future <br /> Perfect<br /> |-<br /> |Unrealised<br /> !Near <br /> Future<br /> !Unrealised <br /> Past (&quot;would&quot;)<br /> !Future <br /> (Remote) <br /> |-<br /> |Conditional <br /> !Conditional <br /> Present<br /> !Conditional <br /> Past<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> For the imperative, the base form of the verb is used. Optionally, the particle '''a''' can be used before the verb. Ex.: <br /> * '''Kaʃmal!''' / '''A kaʃmal!''' &quot;Take!&quot;<br /> * '''Hussi!''' / '''A hussi!''' &quot;Listen!&quot;<br /> * '''Spa kajnaar!''' / '''A spa kajnaar!''' &quot;Don't jump!&quot;<br /> <br /> While the formation of aspect stems is often irregular, the combination of stem + endings is usually quite regular and predictable. The usual epenthetic phonemes occur, mostly the semivowels ('''j''' and '''w'''), when two vowels come together, but these are more an artifact of speech and aren't usually indicated in writing. Ex.: <br /> * '''kaʃmallaus''', '''kaʃmallawus''' <br /> * '''kaʃmallaim''', '''kaʃmallajim''' <br /> * '''kaʃmallaej''', '''kaʃmallajej''', '''kaʃmallahej'''<br /> * '''kaʃmallaɔn''', '''kaʃmallawɔn''' <br /> * '''iggadriips''', '''iggadrijips'''<br /> * '''iggadrius''', '''iggadrijus'''<br /> * &amp;c.<br /> <br /> ==== Negative ====<br /> <br /> The infix '''-(i)nd-''', placed before the personal endings, makes a verb negative. Ex.: <br /> * '''landus''' &quot;I am not&quot;<br /> * '''lattindsɛw''' &quot;they weren't&quot;<br /> * '''hussindoj''' &quot;he/she won't listen&quot;<br /> * '''ateʃfanindips''' &quot;you weren't running away&quot;<br /> <br /> The emphatic negative particle '''spa''' may be used before the verb, always in the negative form. Ex.: <br /> * '''spa landus''' &quot;I am most certainly not&quot;<br /> * '''spa lattindsɛw''' &quot;they definitely weren't&quot;<br /> * '''spa hussindoj''' &quot;he/she will not listen at all&quot;<br /> * '''spa ateʃfanindips''' &quot;you really weren't running away&quot;<br /> <br /> This particle '''spa''' is also used in a negative command, with the base form of the verb. In that case, it doesn't necessarily have an emphatic meaning. Ex.: <br /> * '''Spa hussi!''' / '''A spa hussi!''' &quot;Don't listen!&quot;<br /> <br /> === Nominal Forms ===<br /> <br /> ==== Infinitive ==== <br /> <br /> The Dahur verb has infinitives for the Generic, Cursive, Aorist, Perfect and Unrealised aspects. They are formed by adding the ending '''-eh''' to the corresponding stem. The prefix '''u-''' of the Unrealised aspect is optional in the infinitive. Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Generic<br /> !Cursive<br /> !Aorist<br /> !Perfect<br /> !Unrealised<br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmaleh'''<br /> |'''akʃmalaneh'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaletteh'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaeh'''<br /> |'''ukaʃmaluʃeh''', '''kaʃmaluʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''laeh'''<br /> |'''alaneh'''<br /> |'''latteh'''<br /> |'''lallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)lauʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadraeh'''<br /> |'''agandraneh'''<br /> |'''gadretteh'''<br /> |'''gadrallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)gadruʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kotaeh'''<br /> |'''ankoneh'''<br /> |'''kotatteh'''<br /> |'''kekollaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)kotuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussieh'''<br /> |'''ahsejneh'''<br /> |'''husteh'''<br /> |'''huzillaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)hussuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''keneh'''<br /> |'''angeneh'''<br /> |'''kahetteh'''<br /> |'''kenallaeh''', '''krallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)kunuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustajeh'''<br /> |'''anstajneh'''<br /> |'''ustatteh''', '''ustitteh'''<br /> |'''ustallaeh''', '''ustillaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)stajuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''majeh'''<br /> |'''amanneh'''<br /> |'''menetteh'''<br /> |'''mjallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)mujuʃeh'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trakeh'''<br /> |'''atrakaneh'''<br /> |'''tetraketteh'''<br /> |'''ketrallaeh'''<br /> |'''(u)trakʃeh'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> The infinitive may be used as a noun, but also with certain auxiliary verbs. When a participle is used as a noun, usually the definite article may be omitted. Ex.: <br /> <br /> *'''(Tru) kotaeh laej suwani.''' / '''(Tru) kotaeh suwanjaej.''' &quot;Eating is good.&quot;<br /> <br /> ==== Participle ====<br /> Participles are built by adding specific suffixes to the corresponding stems of the verb: <br /> * '''-ur''' (active participle)<br /> * '''-ek''' (passive participle)<br /> <br /> The prefix '''u-''' of the unrealised stem is dropped.<br /> <br /> Ex.: <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Generic<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Cursive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Aorist<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> !Act.<br /> !Pass.<br /> |-<br /> |'''kaʃmal''' &quot;take&quot;<br /> |'''kaʃmalur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalek'''<br /> |'''akʃmalanur'''<br /> |'''akʃmalanek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalettur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmalettek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaur''', '''kaʃmallur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmallaek''', '''kaʃmallek'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaluʃur'''<br /> |'''kaʃmaluʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |'''laur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''alanur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lattur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lallaur''', '''lallur'''<br /> | <br /> |'''lauʃur'''<br /> | <br /> |-<br /> |'''gadra''' &quot;write&quot;<br /> |'''gadraur'''<br /> |'''gadraek'''<br /> |'''agandranur'''<br /> |'''agandranek'''<br /> |'''gadrettur'''<br /> |'''gadrettek'''<br /> |'''gadrallur'''<br /> |'''gadrallek'''<br /> |'''gadruʃur'''<br /> |'''gadruʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota''' &quot;eat&quot;<br /> |'''kotaur'''<br /> |'''kotaek'''<br /> |'''ankonur'''<br /> |'''ankonek'''<br /> |'''kotattur'''<br /> |'''kotattek'''<br /> |'''kekollur'''<br /> |'''kekollek'''<br /> |'''kotuʃur'''<br /> |'''kotuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot;<br /> |'''hussiur'''<br /> |'''hussiek'''<br /> |'''ahsejnur'''<br /> |'''ahsejnek'''<br /> |'''hustur'''<br /> |'''hustek'''<br /> |'''huzillaur'''<br /> |'''huzillaek'''<br /> |'''hussuʃur'''<br /> |'''hussuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ken''', '''kena''' &quot;see&quot;<br /> |'''kenur'''<br /> |'''kenek'''<br /> |'''angenur'''<br /> |'''angenek'''<br /> |'''kahettur'''<br /> |'''kahettek'''<br /> |'''kenallur''', '''krallur'''<br /> |'''kenallek''', '''krallek'''<br /> |'''kunuʃur'''<br /> |'''kunuʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' &quot;come&quot;<br /> |'''ustajur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''anstajnur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustattur''', '''ustittur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustallur''', '''ustillek'''<br /> |<br /> |'''ustajuʃur'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |'''maj''' &quot;go&quot;<br /> |'''majur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''amannur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''menettur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''mjallur'''<br /> |<br /> |'''mujuʃur'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak''' &quot;do, make&quot;<br /> |'''trakur'''<br /> |'''trakek'''<br /> |'''atrakanur'''<br /> |'''atrakanek'''<br /> |'''tetrakettur'''<br /> |'''tetrakettek'''<br /> |'''ketrallur'''<br /> |'''ketrallek'''<br /> |'''trakʃur'''<br /> |'''trakʃek'''<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka''' &quot;hunt&quot;<br /> |'''ʃakaur'''<br /> |'''ʃakaek'''<br /> |'''aʃkanur'''<br /> |'''aʃkanek'''<br /> |'''ʃakkattur'''<br /> |'''ʃakkattek'''<br /> |'''ʃakallur'''<br /> |'''ʃakallek'''<br /> |'''ʃakkuʃur'''<br /> |'''ʃakkuʃek'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The corresponding negative versions of these participles are formed regularly with the suffix '''-(i)nd-'''. Ex.:<br /> * '''landur''' &quot;not being&quot;<br /> * '''angenindur''' &quot;not seeing&quot;<br /> * '''gradrettindek''' &quot;not written&quot;<br /> * '''ketrallindur''' &quot;who/which had not done&quot;<br /> * '''aʃkanindek''' &quot;which isn't being hunted&quot;<br /> <br /> === Passive Voice ===<br /> <br /> The passive voice is built with the auxiliary '''kʃa''', conjugated regularly, followed by the base form of the verb. Ex.: <br /> <br /> * '''akʃanus taldesyys''' &quot;I'm being taken care of&quot;<br /> * '''akʃanindmis ken''' &quot;you were not being seen&quot;<br /> * '''kʃallaɔn kaʃmal''' &quot;we have been taken&quot;<br /> * '''kʃattsɛw kota''' &quot;they were eaten&quot;<br /> * '''ikkʃindej trak''' &quot;if it's not done&quot;<br /> <br /> <br /> === Conjugation ===<br /> Next you have a few verbs, conjugated in all its forms.<br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|Verb '''la''' &quot;be&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Present<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Continuous <br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Perfect <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Near Future <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Present <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''laus'''<br /> |'''landus'''<br /> |'''alanus'''<br /> |'''alanindus'''<br /> |'''lallaus'''<br /> |'''lallandus'''<br /> |'''ulauʃus'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindus'''<br /> |'''illaius'''<br /> |'''illaindus'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''laim'''<br /> |'''landim'''<br /> |'''alanim'''<br /> |'''alanindim'''<br /> |'''lallaim'''<br /> |'''lallandim'''<br /> |'''ulauʃim'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindim'''<br /> |'''illaiim'''<br /> |'''illaindim'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''laej'''<br /> |'''landej'''<br /> |'''alanej'''<br /> |'''alanindej'''<br /> |'''lallaej'''<br /> |'''lallandej'''<br /> |'''ulauʃej'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindej'''<br /> |'''illaiej'''<br /> |'''illaindej'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''laɔn'''<br /> |'''landɔn'''<br /> |'''alanɔn'''<br /> |'''alanindɔn'''<br /> |'''lallaɔn'''<br /> |'''lallandɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindɔn'''<br /> |'''illaiɔn'''<br /> |'''illaindɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laib'''<br /> |'''landib'''<br /> |'''alanib'''<br /> |'''alanindib'''<br /> |'''lallaib'''<br /> |'''lallandib'''<br /> |'''ulauʃib'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindib'''<br /> |'''illaiib'''<br /> |'''illaindib'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''laɛw'''<br /> |'''landɛw'''<br /> |'''alanɛw'''<br /> |'''alanindɛw'''<br /> |'''lallaɛw'''<br /> |'''lallandɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindɛw'''<br /> |'''illaiɛw'''<br /> |'''illaindɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Habitual Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Continuous <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Past <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Past <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''lasa'''<br /> |'''landsa'''<br /> |'''alansa'''<br /> |'''alanindsa'''<br /> |'''lattsa'''<br /> |'''lattindsa'''<br /> |'''lallasa'''<br /> |'''lallandsa'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsa'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsa'''<br /> |'''illaisa'''<br /> |'''illaindsa'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''lamis'''<br /> |'''landmis'''<br /> |'''alanmis'''<br /> |'''alanindmis'''<br /> |'''lattmis'''<br /> |'''lattindmis'''<br /> |'''lallamis'''<br /> |'''lallandmis'''<br /> |'''ulauʃmis'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindmis'''<br /> |'''illaimis'''<br /> |'''illaindmis'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''lajes'''<br /> |'''landjes'''<br /> |'''alanjes'''<br /> |'''alanindjes'''<br /> |'''lattjes'''<br /> |'''lattindjes'''<br /> |'''lallajes'''<br /> |'''lallandjes'''<br /> |'''ulauʃjes'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindjes'''<br /> |'''illaijes'''<br /> |'''illaindjes'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''lasɔn'''<br /> |'''landsɔn'''<br /> |'''alansɔn'''<br /> |'''alanindsɔn'''<br /> |'''lattsɔn'''<br /> |'''lattindsɔn'''<br /> |'''lallasɔn'''<br /> |'''lallandsɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsɔn'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsɔn'''<br /> |'''illaisɔn'''<br /> |'''illaiindsɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laips'''<br /> |'''landips'''<br /> |'''alanips'''<br /> |'''alanindips'''<br /> |'''lattips'''<br /> |'''lattindips'''<br /> |'''lallaips'''<br /> |'''lallandips'''<br /> |'''ulauʃips'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindips'''<br /> |'''illaiips'''<br /> |'''illaindips'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''lasɛw'''<br /> |'''landsɛw'''<br /> |'''alansɛw'''<br /> |'''alanindsɛw'''<br /> |'''lattsɛw'''<br /> |'''lattindsɛw'''<br /> |'''lallasɛw'''<br /> |'''lallandsɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃsɛw'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindsɛw'''<br /> |'''illaisɛw'''<br /> |'''illaindsɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Indefinite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Progressive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Definite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Remote Future<br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''laos'''<br /> |'''landos'''<br /> |'''alanos'''<br /> |'''alanindos'''<br /> |'''lattos'''<br /> |'''lattindos'''<br /> |'''lallaos'''<br /> |'''lallandos'''<br /> |'''ulauʃos'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindos'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''laom'''<br /> |'''landom'''<br /> |'''alanom'''<br /> |'''alanindom'''<br /> |'''lattom'''<br /> |'''lattindom'''<br /> |'''lallaom'''<br /> |'''lallandom'''<br /> |'''ulauʃom'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindom'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''laoj'''<br /> |'''landoj'''<br /> |'''alanoj'''<br /> |'''alanindoj'''<br /> |'''lattoj'''<br /> |'''lattindoj'''<br /> |'''lallaoj'''<br /> |'''lallandoj'''<br /> |'''ulauʃoj'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindoj'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''laon'''<br /> |'''landon'''<br /> |'''alanon'''<br /> |'''alanindon'''<br /> |'''latton'''<br /> |'''lattindon'''<br /> |'''lallaon'''<br /> |'''lallandon'''<br /> |'''ulauʃon'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindon'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''laob'''<br /> |'''landob'''<br /> |'''alanob'''<br /> |'''alanindob'''<br /> |'''lattob'''<br /> |'''lattindob'''<br /> |'''lallaob'''<br /> |'''lallandob'''<br /> |'''ulauʃob'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindob'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''laow'''<br /> |'''landow'''<br /> |'''alanow'''<br /> |'''alanindow'''<br /> |'''lattow'''<br /> |'''lattindow'''<br /> |'''lallaow'''<br /> |'''lallandow'''<br /> |'''ulauʃow'''<br /> |'''ulauʃindow'''<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|Verb '''hussi''' &quot;hear, listen&quot; <br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Present<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Continuous <br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Present Perfect <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Near Future <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Present <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussius'''<br /> |'''hussindus'''<br /> |'''ahsejnus'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindus'''<br /> |'''huzillaus'''<br /> |'''huzillandus'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃus'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindus'''<br /> |'''ihussejius'''<br /> |'''ihussejindus'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussiim'''<br /> |'''hussindim'''<br /> |'''ahsejnim'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindim'''<br /> |'''huzillaim'''<br /> |'''huzillandim'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃim'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindim'''<br /> |'''ihussejiim'''<br /> |'''ihussejindim'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussije'''<br /> |'''hussindje'''<br /> |'''ahsejnje'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindje'''<br /> |'''huzillaje'''<br /> |'''huzillandje'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃje'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindje'''<br /> |'''ihussejije'''<br /> |'''ihussejindje'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussiɔn'''<br /> |'''hussindɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillaɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillandɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejiɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejindɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiib'''<br /> |'''hussindib'''<br /> |'''ahsejnib'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindib'''<br /> |'''huzillaib'''<br /> |'''huzillandib'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃib'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindib'''<br /> |'''ihussejiib'''<br /> |'''ihussejindib'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussiɛw'''<br /> |'''hussindɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillaɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillandɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejiɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejindɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Habitual Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Continuous <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Simple Past <br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Past Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Unrealised Past<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Conditional Past <br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussisa'''<br /> |'''hussindsa'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsa'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsa'''<br /> |'''hustsa'''<br /> |'''hustindsa'''<br /> |'''huzillasa'''<br /> |'''huzillandsa'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsa'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsa'''<br /> |'''ihussejisa'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsa'''<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussimis'''<br /> |'''hussindmis'''<br /> |'''ahsejnmis'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindmis'''<br /> |'''hustmis'''<br /> |'''hustindmis'''<br /> |'''huzillamis'''<br /> |'''huzillandmis'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃmis'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindmis'''<br /> |'''ihussejimis'''<br /> |'''ihussejindmis'''<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussijes'''<br /> |'''hussindjes'''<br /> |'''ahsejnjes'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindjes'''<br /> |'''hustjes'''<br /> |'''hustindjes'''<br /> |'''huzillajes'''<br /> |'''huzillandjes'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃjes'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindjes'''<br /> |'''ihussejijes'''<br /> |'''ihussejindjes'''<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussisɔn'''<br /> |'''hussindsɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsɔn'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsɔn'''<br /> |'''hustsɔn'''<br /> |'''hustindsɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillasɔn'''<br /> |'''huzillandsɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsɔn'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejisɔn'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsɔn'''<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiips'''<br /> |'''hussindips'''<br /> |'''ahsejnips'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindips'''<br /> |'''hustips'''<br /> |'''hustindips'''<br /> |'''huzillaips'''<br /> |'''huzillandips'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃips'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindips'''<br /> |'''ihussejiips'''<br /> |'''ihussejindips'''<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussisɛw'''<br /> |'''hussindsɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnsɛw'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindsɛw'''<br /> |'''hustsɛw'''<br /> |'''hustindsɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillasɛw'''<br /> |'''huzillandsɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃsɛw'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindsɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejisɛw'''<br /> |'''ihussejindsɛw'''<br /> |-<br /> |colspan=&quot;13&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Indefinite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Progressive<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Definite Future<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Future Perfect<br /> !colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Remote Future<br /> |colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot;|<br /> |-<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> !Affirm.<br /> !Neg.<br /> |-<br /> !1s<br /> |'''hussios'''<br /> |'''hussindos'''<br /> |'''ahsejnos'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindos'''<br /> |'''hustos'''<br /> |'''hustindos'''<br /> |'''huzillaos'''<br /> |'''huzillandos'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃos'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindos'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !2s<br /> |'''hussiom'''<br /> |'''hussindom'''<br /> |'''ahsejnom'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindom'''<br /> |'''hustom'''<br /> |'''hustindom'''<br /> |'''huzillaom'''<br /> |'''huzillandom'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃom'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindom'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !3s<br /> |'''hussioj'''<br /> |'''hussindoj'''<br /> |'''ahsejnoj'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindoj'''<br /> |'''hustoj'''<br /> |'''hustindoj'''<br /> |'''huzillaoj'''<br /> |'''huzillandoj'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃoj'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindoj'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !1p<br /> |'''hussion'''<br /> |'''hussindon'''<br /> |'''ahsejnon'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindon'''<br /> |'''huston'''<br /> |'''hustindon'''<br /> |'''huzillaon'''<br /> |'''huzillandon'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃon'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindon'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !2p<br /> |'''hussiob'''<br /> |'''hussindob'''<br /> |'''ahsejnob'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindob'''<br /> |'''hustob'''<br /> |'''hustindob'''<br /> |'''huzillaob'''<br /> |'''huzillandob'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃob'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindob'''<br /> |<br /> |-<br /> !3p<br /> |'''hussiow'''<br /> |'''hussindow'''<br /> |'''ahsejnow'''<br /> |'''ahsejnindow'''<br /> |'''hustow'''<br /> |'''hustindow'''<br /> |'''huzillaow'''<br /> |'''huzillandow'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃow'''<br /> |'''uhussuʃindow'''<br /> |<br /> |}<br /> <br /> === Incorporation ===<br /> Besides complementing a verb with a noun phrase in the accusative (or some other) case, complements may be incorporated in the verb. This resource is particularly common with more frequent verb + complement combinations. Common verbs, especially indicating more fundamental actions such as &quot;eat&quot;, &quot;drink&quot;, &quot;take&quot;, &quot;speak&quot;, &quot;make&quot;, &quot;kill&quot; &amp;c. are more prone to this type of constructions, while more abstract verbs, as well as less frequently used verbs, tend to follow the more conventional verb + complement approach. <br /> <br /> When a complement is incorporated to a verb, it receives the prefix '''s-''' and is placed before the verb root. Irregularities are not uncommon. <br /> Ex.: <br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !Regular Construction<br /> !Incorporation<br /> !Meaning<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota ʃøga'''<br /> |'''sʃøgkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat meat&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota dabasa'''<br /> |'''sdabaskota'''<br /> |&quot;eat bread&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota drupala'''<br /> |'''sdrupalkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat vegetables&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''kota pinim'''<br /> |'''spinimkota'''<br /> |&quot;eat fruit&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''twiʃin halajna'''<br /> |'''shalantwiʃin'''<br /> |&quot;drink water&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''twiʃin myndra'''<br /> |'''smyndtwiʃin'''<br /> |&quot;drink alcoholic beverage&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys menira'''<br /> |'''smeniraldesyys'''<br /> |&quot;take care of a child&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''taldesyys apsala'''<br /> |'''sapsaldesyys'''<br /> |&quot;take care of everything&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''hussi tuglaa'''<br /> |'''stuglussi'''<br /> |&quot;hear a noise&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''ʃaka pœrakʃa'''<br /> |'''spœrakʃaka'''<br /> |&quot;hunt a beast&quot;<br /> |-<br /> |'''trak tilmara'''<br /> |'''stilmatrak'''<br /> |&quot;make a mistake&quot;<br /> |}</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Language_Checklist/Shqip/G8&diff=5377 Language Checklist/Shqip/G8 2026-08-08T12:36:55Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>#'''Çfarë do të bëjnë ata atje?'''<br /> #*''Ata ndoshta do të bëjnë një nder për ne.''<br /> #*''Ata kurrë nuk do të na braktisin.''</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Travlang/Shqip/Travel&diff=5376 Travlang/Shqip/Travel 2026-08-04T15:01:59Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>==[[Travlang/Shqip/Travel|Albanian: Travel]]==<br /> <br /> <br /> {| <br /> |-<br /> | align=center| '''''English '''''<br /> | align=center| '''''Shqip'''''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Where is ...? ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr1.au Ku është?] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''How much is the fare? ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr2.au Sa kushton bileta? Sa është çmimi i biletës?] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Ticket ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr3.au Biletë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''One ticket to ..., please. ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr4.au Një biletë për ..., ju lutem.] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Where are you going? ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr5.au Ku po shkoni?] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Where do you live? ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr6.au Ku banoni juve?] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Train ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr7.au tren][http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr7.au , tren][http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr7.au i] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Bus ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr8.au një autobus] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Subway, Underground ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr9.au metro] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Airport ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr10.au një aeroport] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Train station ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr11.au stacion treni] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Bus station ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr12.au stacion autobusi] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Subway station, Underground station ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr13.au stacion metroje] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Departure ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr14.au nisje] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Arrival ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr15.au mbërritje] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Car rental agency ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr16.au Agjenci për dhënien me qira të veturave] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Parking ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr17.au park, vend parkimi ][http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr17.au / ][http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr17.au makinash] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Hotel ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr18.au një hotel] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Room ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr19.au një dhomë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Reservation ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr20.au rezervim] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Are there any vacancies for tonight? ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr21.au A keni dhoma të lira për sonte?] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''No vacancies ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr22.au I plotë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Passport ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/tr23.au pasaportë] '''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {{cat|Albanian|Travlang|Shqip|Travel}}</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Travlang/Shqip/Time_and_Dates&diff=5375 Travlang/Shqip/Time and Dates 2026-08-04T15:01:50Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>==[[Travlang/Shqip/Time and Dates|Albanian: Time and Dates]]==<br /> <br /> <br /> {| <br /> |-<br /> | align=center| '''''English '''''<br /> | align=center| '''''Shqip'''''<br /> |-<br /> || ''What time is it? ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti1.au Sa është orë?] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''7:13, Seven thirteen ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti2.au 7:13, Shtatë e trembëdhjetë minuta] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''3:15, Three fifteen ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti3.au 3:15, Tre e pesëmbëdhjetë minuta] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''3:15, A quarter past three ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti4.au 3:15, Tre e një çerek] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''11:30, Eleven thirty ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti5.au 11:30, Njëmbëdhjetë e tridhjetë minuta] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''11:30, Half past eleven ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti6.au 11:30, Njëmbëdhjetë e gjysëm] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''1:45, One forty-five ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti7.au 1:45, Një e dyzet e pesë minuta] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''1:45, A quarter till two ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti8.au 1:45, Dy pa një çerek] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Day ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti9.au Ditë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Week ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti10.au Javë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Month ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti11.au Muaj] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Year ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti12.au Vit] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Monday ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti13.au E hënë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Tuesday ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti14.au E martë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Wednesday ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti15.au E mërkurë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Thursday ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti16.au E enjte] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Friday ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti17.au E premte] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Saturday ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti18.au E shtunë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Sunday ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti19.au E djelë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''January ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti20.au janar] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''February ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti21.au shkurt] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''March ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti22.au mars] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''April ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti23.au prill] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''May ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti24.au maj] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''June ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti25.au qershor] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''July ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti26.au korrik] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''August ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti27.au gusht] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''September ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti28.au shtator] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''October ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti29.au tetor] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''November ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti30.au nëntor] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''December ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti31.au dhjetor] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Spring ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti32.au pranverë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Summer ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti33.au verë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Fall, Autumn ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti34.au vjeshtë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Winter ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti35.au dimër] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Today ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti36.au Sot] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Yesterday ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti37.au Dje] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Tomorrow ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti38.au Nesër] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Birthday ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti39.au Ditëlindje] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Happy Birthday! ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/ti40.au Gëzuar ditëlindjen!] '''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {{cat|Albanian|Travlang|Shqip|Time and Dates}}</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Travlang/Shqip/Shopping,_Dining&diff=5374 Travlang/Shqip/Shopping, Dining 2026-08-04T15:01:37Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>==[[Travlang/Shqip/Shopping, Dining|Albanian: Shopping, Dining]]==<br /> <br /> {|<br /> |-<br /> | align=center| '''''English '''''<br /> | align=center| '''''Shqip'''''<br /> |-<br /> || ''How much does this cost? ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh1.au Sa kushton ky, kjo?] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''What is this? ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh2.au ç'farë është?] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''I'll buy it. ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh3.au Do t'a marr, do t'a blej] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''I would like to buy ... ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh4.au Dëshiroj të blej ...] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Do you have ... ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh5.au A keni ...] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Do you accept credit cards? ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh6.au A pranoni kartat e kreditit?] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Open ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh7.au hapur] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Closed ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh8.au mbyllur] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Postcard ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh9.au kartolinë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Stamps ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh10.au pullë poste] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''A little ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh11.au pak] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''A lot ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh12.au shumë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''All ''<br /> || '''m.: [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh13.au gjithë]&lt;nowiki&gt;;&lt;/nowiki&gt; f.: [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh13.au gjitha] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Breakfast ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh14.au mëngjesi] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Lunch ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh15.au dreka] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Dinner ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh16.au darka] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Vegetarian ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh17.au Vegjetarian] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Kosher ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh18.au Kasher] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Cheers! ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh19.au Shëndeti tuaj!] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Please bring the bill. ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh20.au Llogarinë, ju lutem.] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Bread ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh21.au bukë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Beverage ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh22.au pije] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Coffee ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh23.au kafe] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Tea ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh24.au çaj] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Juice ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh25.au lëng] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Water ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh26.au ujë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Beer ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh27.au birrë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Wine ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh28.au verë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Salt ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh29.au kripë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Pepper ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh30.au piper] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Meat ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh31.au mish] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Beef ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh32.au ka] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Pork ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh33.au derr] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Fish ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh34.au peshk] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Poultry ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh35.au shpend] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Vegetable ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh36.au perime, zarzavate] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Fruit ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh37.au frutë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Potato ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh38.au patate] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Salad ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh39.au sallatë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Dessert ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh40.au fruta, ëmbëlsira] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Ice cream ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/sh41.au akullore] '''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {{cat|Travlang|Albanian|Shqip|Shopping, Dining}}</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Travlang/Shqip/Places&diff=5373 Travlang/Shqip/Places 2026-08-04T15:01:27Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div><br /> ==[[Travlang/Shqip/Places|Albanian: Places]]==<br /> <br /> <br /> {| <br /> |-<br /> | align=center| '''''English '''''<br /> | align=center| '''''Shqip'''''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Post office ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/p1.au Posta] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Museum ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/p2.au muze, muzeum] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Bank ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/p3.au bankë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Police station ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/p4.au xhandarmëri] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Hospital ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/p5.au spital] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Pharmacy, Chemists ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/p6.au farmaci] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Store, Shop ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/p7.au dyqan] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Restaurant ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/p8.au restorant] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''School ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/p9.au shkollë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Church ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/p10.au kishë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Restrooms ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/p11.au banjë, nevojtore] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Street ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/p12.au rrugë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Square ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/p13.au vend] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Mountain ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/p14.au mal] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Hill ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/p15.au kodër, kodrinë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Valley ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/p16.au luginë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Ocean ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/p17.au oqean] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Lake ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/p18.au ligen] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''River ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/p19.au lumë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Swimming Pool ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/p20.au pishinë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Tower ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/p21.au kullë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Bridge ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/p22.au urë] '''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> {{cat|Albanian|Travlang|Shqip|Places}}</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Travlang/Shqip/Numbers&diff=5372 Travlang/Shqip/Numbers 2026-08-04T15:01:18Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>==[[Travlang/Shqip/Numbers|Albanian: Numbers]]==<br /> {|<br /> |-<br /> | align=center| '''''English '''''<br /> | align=center| '''''Shqip'''''<br /> |-<br /> || ''zero ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/0.au zero] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''one ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/1.au një] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''two ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/2.au dy] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''three ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/3.au tre] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''four ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/4.au katër] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''five ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/5.au pesë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''six ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/6.au gjashtë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''seven ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/7.au shtatë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''eight ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/8.au tetë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''nine ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/9.au nëntë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''ten ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/10.au dhjetë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''eleven ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/11.au njëmbëdhjetë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''twelve ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/12.au dymbëdhjetë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''thirteen ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/13.au trembëdhjetë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''fourteen ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/14.au katërmbëdhjetë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''fifteen ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/15.au pesëmbëdhjetë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''sixteen ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/16.au gjashtëmbëdhjetë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''seventeen ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/17.au statëmbëdhjetë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''eighteen ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/18.au tetëmbëdhjetë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''nineteen ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/19.au nëntëmbëdhjetë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''twenty ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/20.au njëzet] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''twenty one ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/21.au njëzet e një] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''thirty ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/30.au tridhjetë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''forty ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/40.au dyzet] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''fifty ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/50.au pesëdhjetë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''sixty ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/60.au gjashtëdhjetë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''seventy ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/70.au shtatëdhjetë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''eighty ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/80.au tetëdhjetë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''ninety ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/90.au nëntëdhjetë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''one hundred ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/100.au njëqind] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''one thousand ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/1000.au një mijë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''one million ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/1000000.au një milion] '''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {{cat|Travlang|Albanian|Shqip|Numbers}}</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Travlang/Shqip/Directions&diff=5371 Travlang/Shqip/Directions 2026-08-04T15:01:09Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>==[[Travlang/Shqip/Directions|Albanian: Directions]]==<br /> <br /> {| <br /> |-<br /> | align=center| '''''English '''''<br /> | align=center| '''''Shqip'''''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Left ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/d1.au në të majtë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Right ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/d2.au Në të djathtë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Straight ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/d3.au Drejt ], [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/d3.au përpara]<br /> |-<br /> || ''Up ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/d4.au sipër] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Down ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/d5.au poshtë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Far ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/d6.au Larg] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Near ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/d7.au afër] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Long ''<br /> || '''m.: [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/d8.au I gjatë]&lt;nowiki&gt;; f.: &lt;/nowiki&gt;[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/d8.au E gjatë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Short ''<br /> || '''m.: [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/d9.au I shkurtër]&lt;nowiki&gt;; f.: &lt;/nowiki&gt;[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/d9.au E shkurtër] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Map ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/d10.au Kartë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Tourist Information ''<br /> || '''[http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/d11.au Informata për turistë] '''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> {{cat|Albanian|Travlang|Shqip|Directions}}</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Travlang/Shqip/Basic_Words&diff=5370 Travlang/Shqip/Basic Words 2026-08-04T15:00:24Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>==[[Travlang/Shqip/Basic Words|Albanian: Basic Words]]==<br /> <br /> <br /> {| <br /> |-<br /> | align=center| '''''English '''''<br /> | align=center| '''''Shqip'''''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Yes ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b1.au Po] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''No ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b2.au Jo] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Thank you ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b3.au Faleminderit] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Thank you very much ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b4.au Faleminderit shumë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''You're welcome ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b5.au S'ka gjë, ju lutem] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Please ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b6.au Ju lutem] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Excuse me ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b7.au Më falni] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Hello ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b8.au Mirëdita] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Goodbye ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b9.au Mirupafshim] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''So long ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b10.au Mirupafshim për së shpejti] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Good morning ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b11.au Mirëmëngjes] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Good afternoon ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b12.au Mirëdita] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Good evening ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b13.au Mirëmbrëma] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Good night ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b14.au Natën e mirë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''I do not understand ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b15.au Nuk kuptoj, nuk marr vesh] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''How do you say this in Albanian? ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b16.au Si thuhet ky, kjo, në ][http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b16.au Shqip][http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b16.au ?] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Do you speak ... ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b17.au A flisni ju ...] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''English ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b18.au Anglisht] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''French ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b19.au Frëngjisht] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''German ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b20.au Gjermanisht] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Spanish ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b21.au Spanjisht] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Chinese ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b22.au Kinezçe, Gjuhën kineze] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''I ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b23.au unë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''We ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b24.au ne] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''You - singular, familiar ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b25.au ti] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''You - singular, formal ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b26.au ju] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''You - plural ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b27.au ju] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''They ''<br /> || '''m.: [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b28.au ata]&lt;nowiki&gt;;&lt;/nowiki&gt; f.: [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b28.au ato] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''What is your name? ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b29.au Si quheni? Si e keni emrin?] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Nice to meet you. ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b30.au Më bëhet qejfi që u njohëm.] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''How are you? ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b31.au Si jeni? Si ja kaloni?] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Good ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b32.au mirë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Bad ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b33.au keq] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''So so ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b34.au çka] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Wife ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b35.au një grua, një bashkëshorte] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Husband ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b36.au burri, bashkëshorti] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Daughter ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b37.au e bija] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Son ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b38.au i biri] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Mother ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b39.au mëmë, nënë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Father ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b40.au baba, atë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Friend ''<br /> || '''m.: [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b41.au një shok]&lt;nowiki&gt;;&lt;/nowiki&gt; f.: [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b41.au një shoqe] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Where is the bathroom? Where is the toilet? ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b42.au Ku ndodhet banjoja / nevojtorja?] '''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ''Source: [http://www.travlang.com/languages/cgi-bin/langchoice.cgi Travlang]<br /> {{cat|Travlang|Shqip|Albanian|Basic Words}}</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Travlang/Shqip/Basic_Words&diff=5369 Travlang/Shqip/Basic Words 2026-08-04T15:00:02Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>==[[{{FULLPAGENAME}}|Albanian: Basic Words]]==<br /> <br /> <br /> {| <br /> |-<br /> | align=center| '''''English '''''<br /> | align=center| '''''Shqip'''''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Yes ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b1.au Po] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''No ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b2.au Jo] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Thank you ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b3.au Faleminderit] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Thank you very much ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b4.au Faleminderit shumë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''You're welcome ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b5.au S'ka gjë, ju lutem] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Please ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b6.au Ju lutem] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Excuse me ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b7.au Më falni] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Hello ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b8.au Mirëdita] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Goodbye ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b9.au Mirupafshim] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''So long ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b10.au Mirupafshim për së shpejti] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Good morning ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b11.au Mirëmëngjes] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Good afternoon ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b12.au Mirëdita] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Good evening ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b13.au Mirëmbrëma] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Good night ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b14.au Natën e mirë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''I do not understand ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b15.au Nuk kuptoj, nuk marr vesh] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''How do you say this in Albanian? ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b16.au Si thuhet ky, kjo, në ][http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b16.au Shqip][http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b16.au ?] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Do you speak ... ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b17.au A flisni ju ...] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''English ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b18.au Anglisht] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''French ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b19.au Frëngjisht] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''German ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b20.au Gjermanisht] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Spanish ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b21.au Spanjisht] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Chinese ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b22.au Kinezçe, Gjuhën kineze] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''I ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b23.au unë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''We ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b24.au ne] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''You - singular, familiar ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b25.au ti] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''You - singular, formal ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b26.au ju] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''You - plural ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b27.au ju] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''They ''<br /> || '''m.: [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b28.au ata]&lt;nowiki&gt;;&lt;/nowiki&gt; f.: [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b28.au ato] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''What is your name? ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b29.au Si quheni? Si e keni emrin?] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Nice to meet you. ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b30.au Më bëhet qejfi që u njohëm.] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''How are you? ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b31.au Si jeni? Si ja kaloni?] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Good ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b32.au mirë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Bad ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b33.au keq] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''So so ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b34.au çka] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Wife ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b35.au një grua, një bashkëshorte] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Husband ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b36.au burri, bashkëshorti] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Daughter ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b37.au e bija] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Son ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b38.au i biri] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Mother ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b39.au mëmë, nënë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Father ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b40.au baba, atë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Friend ''<br /> || '''m.: [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b41.au një shok]&lt;nowiki&gt;;&lt;/nowiki&gt; f.: [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b41.au një shoqe] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Where is the bathroom? Where is the toilet? ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b42.au Ku ndodhet banjoja / nevojtorja?] '''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ''Source: [http://www.travlang.com/languages/cgi-bin/langchoice.cgi Travlang]<br /> {{cat|Travlang|Shqip|Albanian|Basic Words}}</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Travlang/Shqip/Basic_Words&diff=5368 Travlang/Shqip/Basic Words 2026-08-04T14:59:18Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>==[[{{PAGENAME}} |Albanian: Basic Words]]==<br /> <br /> <br /> {| <br /> |-<br /> | align=center| '''''English '''''<br /> | align=center| '''''Shqip'''''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Yes ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b1.au Po] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''No ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b2.au Jo] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Thank you ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b3.au Faleminderit] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Thank you very much ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b4.au Faleminderit shumë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''You're welcome ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b5.au S'ka gjë, ju lutem] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Please ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b6.au Ju lutem] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Excuse me ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b7.au Më falni] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Hello ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b8.au Mirëdita] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Goodbye ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b9.au Mirupafshim] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''So long ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b10.au Mirupafshim për së shpejti] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Good morning ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b11.au Mirëmëngjes] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Good afternoon ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b12.au Mirëdita] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Good evening ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b13.au Mirëmbrëma] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Good night ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b14.au Natën e mirë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''I do not understand ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b15.au Nuk kuptoj, nuk marr vesh] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''How do you say this in Albanian? ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b16.au Si thuhet ky, kjo, në ][http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b16.au Shqip][http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b16.au ?] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Do you speak ... ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b17.au A flisni ju ...] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''English ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b18.au Anglisht] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''French ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b19.au Frëngjisht] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''German ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b20.au Gjermanisht] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Spanish ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b21.au Spanjisht] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Chinese ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b22.au Kinezçe, Gjuhën kineze] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''I ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b23.au unë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''We ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b24.au ne] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''You - singular, familiar ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b25.au ti] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''You - singular, formal ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b26.au ju] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''You - plural ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b27.au ju] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''They ''<br /> || '''m.: [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b28.au ata]&lt;nowiki&gt;;&lt;/nowiki&gt; f.: [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b28.au ato] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''What is your name? ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b29.au Si quheni? Si e keni emrin?] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Nice to meet you. ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b30.au Më bëhet qejfi që u njohëm.] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''How are you? ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b31.au Si jeni? Si ja kaloni?] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Good ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b32.au mirë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Bad ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b33.au keq] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''So so ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b34.au çka] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Wife ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b35.au një grua, një bashkëshorte] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Husband ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b36.au burri, bashkëshorti] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Daughter ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b37.au e bija] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Son ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b38.au i biri] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Mother ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b39.au mëmë, nënë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Father ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b40.au baba, atë] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Friend ''<br /> || '''m.: [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b41.au një shok]&lt;nowiki&gt;;&lt;/nowiki&gt; f.: [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b41.au një shoqe] '''<br /> |-<br /> || ''Where is the bathroom? Where is the toilet? ''<br /> || [http://www.travlang.com/languages//albanian/b42.au Ku ndodhet banjoja / nevojtorja?] '''<br /> |-<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> ''Source: [http://www.travlang.com/languages/cgi-bin/langchoice.cgi Travlang]<br /> {{cat|Travlang|Shqip|Albanian|Basic Words}}</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Template:TravlangMenu&diff=5367 Template:TravlangMenu 2026-08-04T14:56:13Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>{{RightTOC}}<br /> {{:Travlang/{{{1}}}/Basic Words}}<br /> {{:Travlang/{{{1}}}/Numbers}}<br /> {{:Travlang/{{{1}}}/Shopping, Dining}}<br /> {{:Travlang/{{{1}}}/Travel}}<br /> {{:Travlang/{{{1}}}/Directions}}<br /> {{:Travlang/{{{1}}}/Places}}<br /> {{:Travlang/{{{1}}}/Time and Dates}}<br /> &lt;!--<br /> *[[Travlang/{{{1}}}/Basic Words|Basic Words]]<br /> *[[Travlang/{{{1}}}/Numbers|Numbers]]<br /> *[[Travlang/{{{1}}}/Shopping, Dining|Shopping, Dining]]<br /> *[[Travlang/{{{1}}}/Travel|Travel]]<br /> *[[Travlang/{{{1}}}/Directions|Directions]]<br /> *[[Travlang/{{{1}}}/Places|Places]]<br /> *[[Travlang/{{{1}}}/Time and Dates|Time and Dates]]<br /> --&gt;<br /> &lt;includeonly&gt;<br /> [[Category:Travlang]]<br /> [[Category:{{{1}}}]]<br /> &lt;/includeonly&gt;</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Language_Checklist/%E4%B8%AD%E6%96%87/G1&diff=5366 Language Checklist/中文/G1 2026-07-31T02:05:03Z <p>Panglossa: Undo revision 5365 by Panglossa (talk)</p> <hr /> <div># '''&lt;span title=&quot;nǐ&quot;&gt;你&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;shì&quot;&gt;是&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;xuéshēng&quot;&gt;学生&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;ma&quot;&gt;吗&lt;/span&gt;？''' [[File:你是学生吗.mp3]]<br /> ## ''&lt;span title=&quot;shì.de&quot;&gt;是的&lt;/span&gt;，&lt;span title=&quot;wǒ&quot;&gt;我&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;shì&quot;&gt;是&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;suéshēng&quot;&gt;学生&lt;/span&gt;。'' [[File:是的，我是学生.mp3]]<br /> ## ''&lt;span title=&quot;bú shì&quot;&gt;不是&lt;/span&gt;，&lt;span title=&quot;wǒ&quot;&gt;我&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;bú&quot;&gt;不&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;shì&quot;&gt;是&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;xuéshēng&quot;&gt;学生&lt;/span&gt;。'' [[File:不是，我不是学.mp3]]</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Language_Checklist/%E4%B8%AD%E6%96%87/G1&diff=5365 Language Checklist/中文/G1 2026-07-31T02:04:33Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>'''1. &lt;span title=&quot;nǐ&quot;&gt;你&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;shì&quot;&gt;是&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;xuéshēng&quot;&gt;学生&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;ma&quot;&gt;吗&lt;/span&gt;？''' [[File:你是学生吗.mp3]]<br /> * ''&lt;span title=&quot;shì.de&quot;&gt;是的&lt;/span&gt;，&lt;span title=&quot;wǒ&quot;&gt;我&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;shì&quot;&gt;是&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;suéshēng&quot;&gt;学生&lt;/span&gt;。'' [[File:是的，我是学生.mp3]]<br /> * ''&lt;span title=&quot;bú shì&quot;&gt;不是&lt;/span&gt;，&lt;span title=&quot;wǒ&quot;&gt;我&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;bú&quot;&gt;不&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;shì&quot;&gt;是&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;xuéshēng&quot;&gt;学生&lt;/span&gt;。'' [[File:不是，我不是学.mp3]]</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Template:LCPair&diff=5364 Template:LCPair 2026-07-31T02:02:51Z <p>Panglossa: Undo revision 5363 by Panglossa (talk)</p> <hr /> <div>===Language Checklist v. 0.1 - {{{1|English}}} &amp; {{{2|Português}}}===<br /> ''[[../{{{2|Português}}}+{{{1|English}}}/|⇒{{{2|Português}}}-{{{1|English}}}]]<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !{{{1|English}}}<br /> !{{{2|Português}}}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G1}}<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G2}}<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G3}}<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G4}}<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G5}}<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G6}}<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G7}}<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G8}}<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G9}}<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G10}}<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G11}}<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G12}}<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G13}}<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G14}}<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G15}}<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G16}}<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G17}}<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G18}}<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G19}}<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G20}}<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G1}}<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G2}}<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G3}}<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G4}}<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G5}}<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G6}}<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G7}}<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G8}}<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G9}}<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G10}}<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G11}}<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G12}}<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G13}}<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G14}}<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G15}}<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G16}}<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G17}}<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G18}}<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G19}}<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G20}}<br /> |}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Checklist]]</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Template:LCPair&diff=5363 Template:LCPair 2026-07-31T01:58:46Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>===Language Checklist v. 0.1 - {{{1|English}}} &amp; {{{2|Português}}}===<br /> ''[[../{{{2|Português}}}+{{{1|English}}}/|⇒{{{2|Português}}}-{{{1|English}}}]]<br /> {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;<br /> |-<br /> !{{{1|English}}}<br /> !{{{2|Português}}}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G1}}<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G1}}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G2}}<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G2}}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G3}}<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G3}}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G4}}<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G4}}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G5}}<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G5}}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G6}}<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G6}}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G7}}<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G7}}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G8}}<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G8}}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G9}}<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G9}}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G10}}<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G10}}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G11}}<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G11}}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G12}}<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G12}}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G13}}<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G13}}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G14}}<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G14}}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G15}}<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G15}}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G16}}<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G16}}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G17}}<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G17}}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G18}}<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G18}}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G19}}<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G19}}<br /> |-<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{1|English}}}/G20}}<br /> |<br /> {{../{{{2|Português}}}/G20}}<br /> |}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Checklist]]</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Language_Checklist/%E4%B8%AD%E6%96%87%2BCatal%C3%A0&diff=5362 Language Checklist/中文+Català 2026-07-31T01:56:09Z <p>Panglossa: Created page with &quot;{{LCPair|中文|Català}} Category:Català Category:Catalan Category:中文 Category:Chinese&quot;</p> <hr /> <div>{{LCPair|中文|Català}}<br /> [[Category:Català]]<br /> [[Category:Catalan]]<br /> [[Category:中文]]<br /> [[Category:Chinese]]</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Language_Checklist/Catal%C3%A0%2B%E4%B8%AD%E6%96%87&diff=5361 Language Checklist/Català+中文 2026-07-31T01:55:56Z <p>Panglossa: Created page with &quot;{{LCPair|Català|中文}} Category:Català Category:Catalan Category:中文 Category:Chinese&quot;</p> <hr /> <div>{{LCPair|Català|中文}}<br /> [[Category:Català]]<br /> [[Category:Catalan]]<br /> [[Category:中文]]<br /> [[Category:Chinese]]</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Language_Checklist/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%8E%D8%B1%D9%8E%D8%A8%D9%90%D9%8A%D8%A9%2BCatal%C3%A0&diff=5360 Language Checklist/العَرَبِية+Català 2026-07-31T01:55:24Z <p>Panglossa: Created page with &quot;{{LCPair|العَرَبِية|Català}} Category:Català Category:Catalan Category:العَرَبِية Category:Arabic&quot;</p> <hr /> <div>{{LCPair|العَرَبِية|Català}}<br /> [[Category:Català]]<br /> [[Category:Catalan]]<br /> [[Category:العَرَبِية]]<br /> [[Category:Arabic]]</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Language_Checklist/Catal%C3%A0%2B%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%8E%D8%B1%D9%8E%D8%A8%D9%90%D9%8A%D8%A9&diff=5359 Language Checklist/Català+العَرَبِية 2026-07-31T01:55:12Z <p>Panglossa: Created page with &quot;{{LCPair|Català|العَرَبِية}} Category:Català Category:Catalan Category:العَرَبِية Category:Arabic&quot;</p> <hr /> <div>{{LCPair|Català|العَرَبِية}}<br /> [[Category:Català]]<br /> [[Category:Catalan]]<br /> [[Category:العَرَبِية]]<br /> [[Category:Arabic]]</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Language_Checklist/Catal%C3%A0%2BShqip&diff=5358 Language Checklist/Català+Shqip 2026-07-31T01:54:43Z <p>Panglossa: Created page with &quot;{{LCPair|Català|Shqip}} Category:Català Category:Catalan Category:Shqip Category:Albanian&quot;</p> <hr /> <div>{{LCPair|Català|Shqip}}<br /> [[Category:Català]]<br /> [[Category:Catalan]]<br /> [[Category:Shqip]]<br /> [[Category:Albanian]]</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Language_Checklist/Euskara%2BCatal%C3%A0&diff=5357 Language Checklist/Euskara+Català 2026-07-31T01:54:00Z <p>Panglossa: Created page with &quot;{{LCPair|Euskara|Català}} Category:Català Category:Catalan Category:Euskara Category:Basque&quot;</p> <hr /> <div>{{LCPair|Euskara|Català}}<br /> [[Category:Català]]<br /> [[Category:Catalan]]<br /> [[Category:Euskara]]<br /> [[Category:Basque]]</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Language_Checklist/Catal%C3%A0%2BEuskara&diff=5356 Language Checklist/Català+Euskara 2026-07-31T01:53:49Z <p>Panglossa: Created page with &quot;{{LCPair|Català|Euskara}} Category:Català Category:Catalan Category:Euskara Category:Basque&quot;</p> <hr /> <div>{{LCPair|Català|Euskara}}<br /> [[Category:Català]]<br /> [[Category:Catalan]]<br /> [[Category:Euskara]]<br /> [[Category:Basque]]</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Language_Checklist/Catal%C3%A0&diff=5355 Language Checklist/Català 2026-07-31T01:53:03Z <p>Panglossa: </p> <hr /> <div>{{LanguageChecklistNav}}<br /> ===Language Checklist v. 0.1 - Català===<br /> {{/G1}}<br /> {{/G2}}<br /> {{/G3}}<br /> {{/G4}}<br /> {{/G5}}<br /> {{/G6}}<br /> {{/G7}}<br /> {{/G8}}<br /> {{/G9}}<br /> {{/G10}}<br /> {{/G11}}<br /> {{/G12}}<br /> {{/G13}}<br /> {{/G14}}<br /> {{/G15}}<br /> {{/G16}}<br /> {{/G17}}<br /> {{/G18}}<br /> {{/G19}}<br /> {{/G20}}<br /> <br /> [[Category:Català]]<br /> [[Category:Catalan]]<br /> [[Category:Checklist]]</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Language_Checklist/Catal%C3%A0/G20&diff=5354 Language Checklist/Català/G20 2026-07-31T01:52:55Z <p>Panglossa: Created page with &quot;# &#039;&#039;&#039;Quant costarà aquest cotxe?&#039;&#039;&#039; #* &#039;&#039;No costarà res.&#039;&#039; #* &#039;&#039;Serà un regal de l&#039;empresa.&#039;&#039;&quot;</p> <hr /> <div># '''Quant costarà aquest cotxe?'''<br /> #* ''No costarà res.''<br /> #* ''Serà un regal de l'empresa.''</div> Panglossa https://oderalon.net:443/wiki/index.php?title=Language_Checklist/Catal%C3%A0/G19&diff=5353 Language Checklist/Català/G19 2026-07-31T01:52:48Z <p>Panglossa: Created page with &quot;# &#039;&#039;&#039;Quants anys té el teu pare?&#039;&#039;&#039; #* &#039;&#039;El meu pare no és gaire vell.&#039;&#039; #* &#039;&#039;El meu pare té quaranta-nou anys.&#039;&#039;&quot;</p> <hr /> <div># '''Quants anys té el teu pare?'''<br /> #* ''El meu pare no és gaire vell.''<br /> #* ''El meu pare té quaranta-nou anys.''</div> Panglossa