Dahur
Phonology
Vowels
Dahur vowels are usually short. Double vowels (ex.: aa, ee &c.) may happen, but they are considered as simple vowel sequences.
The diagram below shows the 10 vowels of Dahur.
In practice, the vowel /a/ may actually vary between /a/, /ä/ and /ɑ/.
Merging of /ø/ and /œ/ is fairly common, especially in more informal contexts, as these two vowels mostly don't occur as minimal pair (except in a couple cases).
Consonants
Dahur consonants are as follows:
| Bilabial | Labiodental | Alveolar | Postalveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | /m/ | /n/ | |||||
| Plosive | /p/ /b/ | /t/ /d/ | /k/ /g/ | ||||
| Sibilant fricative | /s/ /z/ | /ʃ/ /ʒ/ | |||||
| Non-sibilant fricative | /f/ /v/ | /h/ | |||||
| Approximant | /j/ | ||||||
| Tap/Flap/Trill | /ɾ/ /r/ | ||||||
| Lateral Approx. | /l/ |
The rhotic consonant ("r") is in free variation and may be realised either as a tap, a flap or a trill. The trill pronunciation (/r/) is more common at the beginning of a syllable, and even more so at the beginning of a word. The tap/flap pronunciation (/ɾ/) is more common in consonant clusters, especially after a plosive.
In Dahur phonology, the combinations /tɾ/ and /kʃ/ count as single, independent consonants.
Phonotactics
A syllable in Dahur must contain one vowel, which may be preceded and/or followed by any number of consonants. In practice, consonant clusters don't usually go beyond four consonants. For that account, /kʃ/ and /tɾ/ are always considered as single consonants.
All consonant sequences are possible. However, in practice, some consonant combinations (ex. -hm-, -tɾkʃ- &c.) are rare.
Some studies consider the existence of a glottal stop when a proper consonant is absent. This view is reflected in the writing, which has a special sign for the glottal stop / lack of a consonant. The last consonant of a syllable can be doubled.
Examples of valid syllables:
| a | tɛ | en | wi | koj | gjɔ | pɾujn | kʃtɾa | fʃtlœmbz |
Stress
In the standard pronunciation, words are stressed on the next-to-last syllable. However, if the last syllable contains the consonant /tɾ/, it will be stressed.
Ex.:
| kanar
/ˈka.nar/ |
ostrøndɛl
/os.ˈtɾøn.dɛl/ |
tefʃiv
/ˈtef.ʃiv/ |
dasutɾ
/daˈsutɾ/ |
maʃkintɾod
/maʃ.kinˈtɾod/ |
Writing
Dahur script consists in an alphasyllabary consisting in combinations of two consonants to which modifiers are added to indicate vowels.
Morphology
Dahur is a highly flexional language, with a strong presence of irregular forms.
Nouns inflect for number, which is basically singular and plural, but there are also occurrences of dual (for things normally occurring in pairs) and singulative (for individual items of things usually found collectively).
Nouns also inflect for case, usually: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, locative, instrumental, ergative and ablative. Instances of partitive and vocative are also found. The case called ergative is used basically for the agent of the passive voice.
Adjectives show no agreement to nouns, and inflect for degree (comparatives of superiority, equality, inferiority; relative and absolute superlative).
Nouns
Class
Dahurian nouns are divided in five classes, which can be compared to Latin or Greek declensions, as they consist in different inflection patterns, but may also be seen as a form of gender, as class is usually (but not always necessarily) related to the meaning of a noun.
| Class 1 | Living beings |
|---|---|
| Class 2 | General objects |
| Class 3 | Natural elements; insects |
| Class 4 | Parts of human body; clothing |
| Class 5 | Abstract nouns; traditional imaginary beings |
There are no morphological indications related to noun classes in the nominative singular. The differences appear along the inflection of nouns.
Number
Nouns in Dahur have a singular and a plural. The plural ending varies according to noun class and to case. There is also a dual number, which is valid only for nouns normally occurring in pairs. Mass or collective nouns have a singulative inflection.
So, for example:
| Class | Singular | Plural | Dual | Singulative |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| class 1 | grats
"boy" |
gratsen
"boys" |
- | - |
| class 2 | kɛʃev
"hammer" |
kɛʃevlin
"hammers" |
kɛʃevs
"pair of hammers" (traditionally used by blacksmiths) |
- |
| class 3 | halajn
"water" |
halejnn
"waters" (i.e. in a flood) |
halajns
"The Two Waters" (the river Okanuma and the lake Kassanjas) |
halajny
"a drop of water" |
| class 4 | kanar
"eye" |
kanarni
"many eyes" (mostly figuratively) |
kanaris
"(two/both) eyes" |
- |
| class 4 | kʃalim
"hair" |
kʃalimni
"(types of) hair" |
- | kʃalimy
"a (single) hair" |
| class 5 | astrønɛl
"idea" |
astrønɛljan
"ideas" |
astrønɛls
"a couple ideas" |
- |
The plural in classes 1, 2 and 5 is usually regular, obtained with the respective suffixes (-en, -lin, -jan).
Ex.:
| Class | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| class 1 | katlaj
"girlfriend" |
katlajen |
| dukʃatr
"boss" |
dukʃatren | |
| egastɛv
"farmer" |
egastɛven | |
| class 2 | takoj
"pin" |
takojlin |
| uhpsan
"paper" |
uhpsanlin | |
| dasutr
"document, file" |
dasutrlin | |
| class 5 | pɛktegal
"angel" |
pɛktegaljan |
| ostrøndɛl
"interruption" |
ostrøndɛljan | |
| piktaraʃ
"problem" |
piktaraʃjan |
In classes 3 and 4, besides the suffixes (-n, -ni), most nouns suffer some sort of mutation, usually affecting only one vowel but non uncommonly consisting of more significative changes.
Ex.:
| Class | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| class 3 | pakpaki
"louse" |
pakpɛkin |
| pahalis
"leaf" |
pahaljen | |
| tʃeptal
"cloud" |
tʃapatlin, tʃaptlin | |
| class 4 | kraus
"ear" |
krojsni |
| ɛmblew
"hat" |
ɛmbalni | |
| krikter
"helmet" |
kruktni |
Inflection
Noun declension in Dahur is quite regular, in terms of case and the less usual numbers, viz. the dual and the singulative.
| Class 1 | Class 2 | Class 3 | Class 4 | Class 5 | |||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sing. | Dual | Pl. | Sing. | Dual | Pl. | Sing. | Dual | Pl. | Sing. | Dual | Pl. | Sing. | Dual | Pl. | |||||
| Nominative | - | -s | -en | - | -s | -lin | - | -s | -n | - | -is | -ni | - | -s | -jan | ||||
| Accusative | -a | -as | -an | -a | -as | -lajn | -a | -as | -an | -a | -jas | -nja | -a | -as | -jan | ||||
| Dative | -u | -us | -un | -u | -us | -lun | -u | -us | -wan | -u | -ujs | -nu | -u | -us | -ujn | ||||
| Genitive | -ak | -ask | -ken | -ik | -isk | -link | -aʃ | -ʃas | -ʃan | -iʃ | -siʃ | -niʃ | -ik | -iks | -jank | ||||
| Locative | -ebb | -eps | -emb | -ebb | -eps | -limb | -ebb | -eps | -emb | -ebb | -bis | -nibb | -ebb | -eps | -jamb | ||||
| Instrumental | -om | -oms | -nom | -om | -oms | -lom | -om | -oms | -nom | -om | -joms | -njom | -om | -oms | -njom | ||||
| Ablative | -ɛv | -ɛfs | -nɛv | -ɛv | -ɛfs | -lɛnv, -lɛv | -ɛv | -ɛfs | -nɛv | -ɛv | -jɛfs | -njɛv | -ɛv | -ɛfs | -njɛv | ||||
| Ergative | -øtr | -søtr | -trøn | -øtr | -søtr | -løtr | -øtr | -søtr | -trøn | -øtr | -sjøtr | -trøjn | -øtr | -søtr | -trøjn | ||||
When an ending starting with a vowel is applied, a final -i becomes -j-, and a final -u becomes -w-; otherwise, an -h- is added. Ex.:
- dula "babysitter", dulahen "babysitters"
- agdari "prisoner", agdarjen "prisoners"
- pakpaki "louse", pakpakja "louse (accus.)", pakpakjaʃ "of a louse", pakpakjom "by a louse"
In the following tables, you have some examples of nouns of the various classes, fully inflected for number and case.
- Class 1: grats "boy"
- Class 2: kɛʃev "hammer"
- Class 3: tʃeptal "cloud"
- Class 4: kraus "ear"
- Class 5: astrønɛl "idea"
Articles
Definite Article
The definite article inflects for case and number, and is quite irregular.
| Singular | Plural | Dual | Singulative | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | tru | tann | gas | try |
| Accusative | na | ta | ga | ny |
| Dative | kʃi | tisi | gisi | kʃi |
| Genitive | kis | tak | gak | kis |
| Locative | dus | tus | gus | dus |
| Instrumental | trom | tem | gem | trom |
| Ergative | trø | tøtr | gøtr | trø |
| Ablative | dɛv | tɛv | gɛv | dɛv |
Adjectives
Attributive Adjectives
Attributive adjectives in Dahur are invariable and come before the noun. Ex.:
- fɛren grats "a smart boy"
- duʃ halan "clean water"
- selak kanaris "pretty eyes"
A few attributes may be expressed by affixes to the noun, instead of the separate adjective. The most common ones are:
| Adjective | Affix | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| nahar | -os
(usually deleting the last vowel of the original noun) |
"big", "large" |
| kitr | -in-
(before the last vowel of the or. noun) |
"small", "little" |
| suwani | -(t)ta-
(before the second vowel of the or. noun) |
"good" |
| daggus, daggussa | -aar | "bad" |
Examples:
| With Adjective | With Affixed Form | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| nahar piktaraʃ | piktarʃos | "a big problem" |
| kitr piktaraʃ | piktarinaʃ | "a little problem" |
| suwani astrønɛl | attastrønɛl | "a good idea" |
| daggus astrønɛl, daggussa astrønɛl | astrønɛlaar | "a bad idea" |
Certain adjectives have a special, shortened form, which is prefixed to nouns when used attributively.
The most common ones are:
| Adjective | Affix | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| nahar | nah- | "big", "large" |
| kitr | ki-
(doubles the initial consonant of the noun) |
"small", "little" |
| suwani | suw- (suww- before vowels) | "good" |
| daggus, daggussa | dag- (dagg- before vowels) | "bad" |
| sulin | sin- | "new" |
| dotrɛ | dom- | "old" |
| mahhalis | mah- | "ancient" |
| makʃølen, makʃølin | møkʃ- | "important", "great" |
| tossan | tos-, tan- | "beautiful" |
| abliki | killi- | "false", "fake" |
Examples:
| With Adjective | With Prefix | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| nahar piktaraʃ | nahpiktaraʃ | "a big problem" |
| kitr piktaraʃ | kippiktaraʃ | "a small problem" |
| suwani astrønɛl | suwwastrønɛl | "a good idea" |
| daggus astrønɛl, daggussa astrønɛl | daggastrønɛl | "a bad idea" |
| sulin dasutr | sindasutr | "a new document" |
| dotrɛ hedan | domhedan | "an old house" |
| mahhalis kataʃtevan | mahkataʃtevan | "an ancient civilization" |
| makʃølen dasutr, makʃølin dasutr | møkʃdasutr | "an important document" |
| makʃølen astrønɛl, makʃølin astrønɛl | møkʃastrønɛl | "a great idea" |
| tossan dummal | tosdummal, tandummal | "a beautiful song" |
| abliki bɔrakʃ | killibɔrakʃ | "false news", "fake news" |
Predicative Adjectives
An adjective used in predicative function is invariable. Only the full forms of adjectives can be used predicatively.
Usually a linking verb is employed. Ex.:
| Tru astrønɛl laje makʃølen. | The idea is great. |
| Tru grats alanje befitra. | The boy is tired. |
There is also the possibility of turning adjectives into verbs. Ex.:
| Tru astrønɛl makʃølnaje. | The idea is great. |
| Tru grats abefitranje. | The boy is tired. |
The most common way to make an adjective into a verb, implying the idea of "be", is the suffix -a-, which may cause some change in the last syllable of the original adjective. If the adjective already ends in -a, there is no change. Ex.:
| Adjective | Verb |
|---|---|
| makʃølen
"great" |
makʃølna
"be great" |
| befitra
"tired" |
befitra
"be tired" |
| suwani
"good" |
suwanja
"be good" |
| daggus
"bad" |
daggusa
"be bad" |
| sulin
"new" |
sulna
"be new" |
| dotrɛ
"old" |
dɛtra
"be old" |
| tossan
"beautiful" |
tossana, tosna
"be beautiful" |
| trapter
"unique" |
traptra
"be unique" |
| ʃɔtma
"sure", "certain" |
ʃɔtama
"be sure", "be certain" |
| kanikli
"appropriate" |
kankilja
"be appropriate" |
| tubbar
"white" |
tubabra
"be white" |
| kindis
"clear" |
kinitsa
"be clear" |
Another suffix is -(a)st(a)-, meaning "to get" or "to become". The first optional -a- appears when necessary, to avoid unsuitable consonant clusters, while the final -a is only used in the infinitive form of the verb - i.e., without any suffixes. There are some irregular formations.
Ex.:
| Adjective | Verb |
|---|---|
| makʃølen
"great" |
makʃølnasta
"become great" |
| befitra
"tired" |
befitrasta
"get tired" |
| nahar
"big, large" |
nahasta, narasta
"get big", "increase" |
| kitr
"little, small" |
kitrasta, katrasta, kirrasta
"get smaller", "decrease" |
| suwani
"good" |
suwanasta
"become good" suwasta, sawasta, suwnasta "get better", "improve" |
| daggus , daggussa
"bad" |
daggusasta, daggussasta
"become bad" daggasta "get worse" |
| dotrɛ
"old" |
dotrɛsta
"become old" dotrasta "get older", "to age" |
| tossan
"beautiful |
tossanasta
"become beautiful" tossasta, tosnasta "get prettier", "beautify" |
| abliki
"false", "fake" |
ablikasta
"become invalid" |
A few other suffixes perform similar tasks, with more specific meanings. These are usually quite regular. The most productive among these suffixes are:
| -we | "to remain", "still be" |
| -kas | "to seem", "to appear" |
| -ʃyn | "to pretend to be" |
| -dobb(a)- | "to cease to be", "to be no longer" |
| -guj | "to be a little bit" |
Ex.:
| Adjective | Verb |
|---|---|
| nøssar
"calm" |
nøssarwe "remain calm", "keep calm"
nøssarkaʃ "seem/appear calm" nøssarʃyn "pretend to be calm" nøssardobba "cease to be calm" nøssarguj "be a little calm" |
| dotrɛ
"old" |
dotrɛkaʃ "seem/appear old"
dotrɛguj "be a little old" |
Numerals
The basic cardinal numbers are:
| 0 | kal, kahtral |
| 1 | mihen |
| 2 | dahas |
| 3 | travis |
| 4 | gazen |
| 5 | kɛʃav |
| 6 | pinjan |
| 7 | høtak |
| 8 | magɛl |
| 9 | donwaʒ |
| 10 | zɛhɛv |
| 11 | zɛhɛv mihen, zɛvhen |
| 12 | zɛhɛv dahas, zɛvdas |
| 13 | zɛhɛv travis, zɛvtras |
| 14 | zɛhɛv gazen, zɛvzen |
| 15 | zɛhɛv kɛʃav, zɛvkʃav |
| 16 | zɛhɛv pinjan, zɛvpan |
| 17 | zɛhɛv høtak,zɛvhøk |
| 18 | zɛhɛv magɛl, zɛvmal |
| 19 | zɛhɛv donwaʒ, zɛvdaʒ |
| 20 | dahassɛv |
| 30 | travissɛv |
| 40 | gazennɛv |
| 50 | kɛʃavvɛv |
| 60 | pinjannɛv |
| 70 | høtakkɛv |
| 80 | magɛllɛv |
| 90 | donwaʒʒɛv |
| 100 | lakin |
| 1,000 | tatrimi |
| 10,000 | zɛhɛv tatrimi |
Numbers are composed by joining the base units above, from bigger to lower. Ex.:
| 23 | dahassɛv travis |
| 45 | gazennɛv kɛʃav |
| 67 | pinjannɛv høtak |
| 89 | magɛllɛv donwaʒ |
| 123 | lakin dahassɛv travis |
| 456 | gazen lakin kɛʃavvɛv pinjan |
| 789 | høtak lakin magɛllɛv donwaʒ |
| 1,234 | tatrimi dahas lakin travissɛv gazen |
| 5,678 | kɛʃav tatrimi pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl |
| 12,345 | zɛvdas tatrimi travis lakin gazennɛv kɛʃav |
| 678,910 | pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl tatrimi donwaʒ lakin zɛhɛv |
Ordinal numbers are created with the suffix -iki. Ex.:
| 1st | miheniki |
| 2nd | dahasiki |
| 3rd | travisiki |
| 4th | gazeniki |
| 5th | kɛʃaviki |
| 6th | pinjaniki |
| 7th | høtakiki |
| 8th | magɛliki |
| 9th | donwaʒiki |
| 10th | zɛhɛviki, zɛhviki |
| 11th | zɛvheniki |
| 12th | zɛvdasiki |
| 13th | zɛvtrasiki |
| 14th | zɛvzeniki |
| 15th | zɛvkʃaviki |
| 16th | zɛvpaniki |
| 17th | zɛvhøkiki |
| 18th | zɛvmaliki |
| 19th | zɛvdaʒiki |
| 20th | dahassɛviki |
| 30th | travissɛviki |
| 40th | gazennɛviki |
| 50th | kɛʃavvɛviki |
| 60th | pinjannɛviki |
| 70th | høtakkɛviki |
| 80th | magɛllɛviki |
| 90th | donwaʒʒɛviki |
| 100th | lakiniki |
| 1,000th | tatrimiiki |
Verbs
The personal endings for all verb forms are as follows:
- 1s: -us
- 2s: -im
- 3s: -je
- 1p: -tron
- 2p: -trib
- 3p: -trɛw
Generic (Present)
The generic present tense corresponds to the bare stem, to which the personal endings are added. It mostly indicates the verbal idea without a specific context, time or aspect, and usually corresponds to the simple present tense indicating something as permanent, that is always true, or that repeats indefinitely. Ex.:
kaʃmal "take"
- 1s: kaʃmalus "I take"
- 2s: kaʃmalim "you take"
- 3s: kaʃmalje "he/she takes"
- 1p: kaʃmaltron "we take"
- 2p: kaʃmaltrib "you take"
- 3p: kaʃmaltrɛw "they take"
la "be (permanently)"
- 1s: laus "I am"
- 2s: laim "you are"
- 3s: laje "he/she is"
- 1p: latron "we are"
- 2p: latrib "you are"
- 3p: latrɛw "they are"
wennin "live"
- 1s: wenninus "I live"
- 2s: wenninim "you live"
- 3s: wenninje "he/she lives"
- 1p: wennintron "we live"
- 2p: wennintrib "you live"
- 3p: wennintrɛw "they live"
Cursive (Present Continuous)
This tense indicates an action ongoing at the moment of speech. It mostly corresponds to the English Present Continuous (or Progressive).
The verb stem receives the prefix a- and the suffix -(a)n-. Some verbs have irregular forms.
Ex.:
kaʃmal "take"
- 1s: akaʃmalnus "I'm taking"
- 2s: akaʃmalnim "you're taking"
- 3s: akaʃmalnje "he/she's taking"
- 1p: akaʃmalantron "we're taking"
- 2p: akaʃmalantrib "you're taking"
- 3p: akaʃmalantrɛw "they're taking"
la "be (currently, temporarily)"
- 1s: alanus "I am"
- 2s: alanim "you are"
- 3s: alanje "he/she is"
- 1p: alantron "we are"
- 2p: alantrib "you are"
- 3p: alantrɛw "they are"
wennin "live"
- 1s: awninnus "I'm living"
- 2s: awninnim "you're living"
- 3s: awninnje "he/she's living"
- 1p: awninntron "we're living"
- 2p: awninntrib "you're living"
- 3p: awninntrɛw "they're living"
Aorist (Simple Past)
This tense indicates a complete or punctual action in the past, usually with no relation to the present. It is common to associate this tense with a specific time phrase, establishing the moment it happened.
The verb stem receives the suffix -doh-.
Ex.:
kaʃmal "take"
- 1s: kaʃmaldohus "I took"
- 2s: kaʃmaldohim "you took"
- 3s: kaʃmaldohje "he/she took"
- 1p: kaʃmaldohtron "we took"
- 2p: kaʃmaldohtrib "you took"
- 3p: kaʃmaldohtrɛw "they took"
la "be"
- 1s: ladohus "I was (at some point)"
- 2s: ladohim "you were"
- 3s: ladohje "he/she was"
- 1p: ladohtron "we were"
- 2p: ladohtrib "you were"
- 3p: ladohtrɛw "they were"
wennin "live"
- 1s: wennindohus "I lived"
- 2s: wennindohim "you lived"
- 3s: wennindohje "he/she lived"
- 1p: wennindohtron "we lived"
- 2p: wennindohtrib "you lived"
- 3p: wennindohtrɛw "they lived"
Perfect (Present Perfect)
The Perfect tense corresponds basically to the Present Perfect, indicating the result of an action that happened in a relatively recent past.
The verb stem receives the suffix -et(t)-. There are many irregular forms.
Ex.:
kaʃmal "take"
- 1s: kaʃmalettus "I've taken"
- 2s: kaʃmalettim "you've taken"
- 3s: kaʃmalettje "he/she's taken"
- 1p: kaʃmalettron "we've taken"
- 2p: kaʃmalettrib "you've taken"
- 3p: kaʃmalettrɛw "they've taken"
la "be"
- 1s: laettus "I've been"
- 2s: laettim "you've been"
- 3s: laettje "he/she's been"
- 1p: laettron "we've been"
- 2p: laettrib "you've been"
- 3p: laettrɛw "they've been"
wennin "live"
- 1s: wennettus "I've lived"
- 2s: wennettim "you've lived"
- 3s: wennettje "he/she's lived"
- 1p: wennettron "we've lived"
- 2p: wennettrib "you've lived"
- 3p: wennettrɛw "they've lived"
Future
The future is formed with the prefix u- and the suffix -(u)ʃ-.
Ex.:
kaʃmal "take"
- 1s: ukaʃmalʃus "I'll take"
- 2s: ukaʃmalʃim "you'll take"
- 3s: ukaʃmaluʃje "he/she'll takes"
- 1p: ukaʃmaluʃtron "we'll take"
- 2p: ukaʃmaluʃtrib "you'll take"
- 3p: ukaʃmaluʃtrɛw "they'll take"
la "be (permanently)"
- 1s: ulaʃus "I'll be"
- 2s: ulaʃim "you'll be"
- 3s: ulaʃje "he/she'll be"
- 1p: ulaʃtron "we'll be"
- 2p: ulaʃtrib "you'll be"
- 3p: ulaʃtrɛw "they'll be"
wennin "live"
- 1s: uwenninʃus "I'll live"
- 2s: uwenninʃim "you'll live"
- 3s: uwenninuʃje "he/she'll lives"
- 1p: uwenninuʃtron "we'll live"
- 2p: uwenninuʃtrib "you'll live"
- 3p: uwenninuʃtrɛw "they'll live"
Conditional
The conditional is formed with the prefix i- and the suffix -i-.
Ex.:
kaʃmal "take"
- 1s: ikaʃmalius "I take"
- 2s: ikaʃmaliim "you take"
- 3s: ikaʃmalije "he/she takes"
- 1p: ikaʃmalitron "we take"
- 2p: ikaʃmalitrib "you take"
- 3p: ikaʃmalitrɛw "they take"
la "be (permanently)"
- 1s: ilaius "I am"
- 2s: ilaiim "you are"
- 3s: ilaije "he/she is"
- 1p: ilaitron "we are"
- 2p: ilaitrib "you are"
- 3p: ilaitrɛw "they are"
wennin "live"
- 1s: iwenninius "I live"
- 2s: iwenniniim "you live"
- 3s: iwenninije "he/she lives"
- 1p: iwenninitron "we live"
- 2p: iwenninitrib "you live"
- 3p: iwenninitrɛw "they live"