Conlangs/Dahur: Difference between revisions

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==Vowels==
==Vowels==
Dahur vowels are usually short. Double vowels (ex.: aa, ee &c.) may happen, but they are considered as simple vowel sequences.
Dahur vowels are usually short. Double vowels (ex.: aa, ee &c.) may happen, but they are considered as simple vowel sequences.
The following vowels qualities are distinguished:
'''a''' '''e''' '''ɛ''' '''i''' '''o''' '''ɔ''' '''ø''' '''œ''' '''u''' '''y'''


The diagram below shows the 10 vowels of Dahur.
The diagram below shows the 10 vowels of Dahur.
Line 12: Line 17:
In practice, the vowel /a/ may actually vary between /a/, /ä/ and /ɑ/.
In practice, the vowel /a/ may actually vary between /a/, /ä/ and /ɑ/.


There are speakers that tend to merge /ø/ and /œ/, especially in more informal contexts.
Merging of /ø/ and /œ/ is fairly common, especially in more informal contexts, as these two vowels mostly don't occur as minimal pair (except in a couple cases).
 
<!--
{|
|-
|
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''a'''
| <tt>/a/</tt>
|-
|'''ê'''
| <tt>/e/</tt>
|-
|'''é'''
| <tt>/ɛ/</tt>
|}
|
| &nbsp;
|
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''i'''
| <tt>/i/</tt>
|-
|'''ô'''
| <tt>/o/</tt>
|-
|'''ó'''
| <tt>/ɔ/</tt>
|}
|
| &nbsp;
|
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''u'''
| <tt>/u/</tt>
|-
|'''ö'''
| <tt>/ø/</tt>
|-
|'''ü'''
| <tt>/y/</tt>
|}
|}
 
-->


==Consonants==
==Consonants==
Line 77: Line 35:
|-
|-
!Nasal
!Nasal
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /m/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''m'''
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /n/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''n'''
|
|
|
|
Line 86: Line 44:
|-
|-
!Plosive
!Plosive
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /p/ /b/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''p''' '''b'''
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /t/ /d/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''t''' '''d'''
|
|
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /k/ /g/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''k''' '''g'''
|
|
|-
|-
Line 97: Line 55:
|
|
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /s/ /z/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''s''' '''z'''
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /ʃ/ /ʒ/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''ʃ''' '''ʒ'''
|
|
|
|
Line 105: Line 63:
!Non-sibilant fricative
!Non-sibilant fricative
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /f/ /v/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''f''' '''v'''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /h/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''h'''
|-
|-
!Approximant
!Approximant
Line 117: Line 75:
|
|
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /j/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''j'''
|
|
|
|
Line 124: Line 82:
|
|
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|/ɾ/ /r/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''ɾ''' '''r'''
|
|
|
|
Line 133: Line 91:
|
|
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /l/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''l'''
|
|
|
|
Line 140: Line 98:
|}
|}


The rhotic consonant ("r") is in free variation and may be realised either as a tap, a flap or a trill. The trill pronunciation (/r/) is more common at the beginning of a syllable, and even more so at the beginning of a word. The tap/flap pronunciation (/ɾ/) is more common in consonant clusters, especially after a plosive.  
The rhotic consonant ('''r''') is in free variation and may be realised either as a tap, a flap or a trill. The trill pronunciation (/r/) is more common at the beginning of a syllable, and even more so at the beginning of a word. The tap/flap pronunciation (/ɾ/) is more common in consonant clusters, especially after a plosive.  


In Dahur phonology, the combinations /tɾ/ and /kʃ/ count as single, independent consonants.  
In Dahur phonology, the combinations '''tr''' and '''kʃ''' count as single, independent consonants.


==Phonotactics==
A syllable in Dahur must contain one vowel, which may be preceded and/or followed by any number of consonants. In practice, consonant clusters don't usually go beyond four consonants. For that account, '''kʃ''' and '''tɾ''' are always considered as single consonants.


<!--
All consonant sequences are possible. However, in practice, some consonant combinations (ex. '''-hm-''', '''-tɾkʃ-''' &c.) are rare.
{|
|-
|
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''p'''
| <tt>/p/</tt>
|-
|'''t'''
| <tt>/t/</tt>
|-
|'''k'''
| <tt>/k/</tt>
|}
|
| &nbsp;
|
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''b'''
| <tt>/b/</tt>
|-
|'''d'''
| <tt>/d/</tt>
|-
|'''g'''
| <tt>/g/</tt>
|}
|
| &nbsp;
|
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''f'''
| <tt>/f/</tt>
|-
|'''s'''
| <tt>/s/</tt>
|-
|'''sh'''
| <tt>/ʃ/</tt>
|-
|'''ksh'''
| <tt>/kʃ/</tt>
|}
|
| &nbsp;
|
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''v'''
| <tt>/v/</tt>
|-
|'''z'''
| <tt>/z/</tt>
|-
|'''zh'''
| <tt>/ʒ/</tt>
|}
|
| &nbsp;
|
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''m'''
| <tt>/m/</tt>
|-
|'''n'''
| <tt>/n/</tt>
|-
|'''l'''
| <tt>/l/</tt>
|-
|'''r'''
| <tt>/ɾ/</tt>, <tt>/r/</tt>
|}
|
| &nbsp;
|
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''y'''
| <tt>/j/</tt>
|-
|'''w'''
| <tt>/w/</tt>
|-
|'''h'''
| <tt>/h/</tt>
|-
|'''tr'''
| <tt>/tɾ/</tt>
|}
|}
-->
 
==Phonotactics==
A syllable in Dahur must contain one vowel, which may be preceded and/or followed by one consonant - i.e., (C)V(C). For that account, /kʃ/ and /tɾ/ are always considered as single consonants.  


Some studies consider the existence of a glottal stop when a proper consonant is absent. This view is reflected in the writing, which has a special sign for the glottal stop / lack of a consonant. The last consonant of a syllable can be doubled.  
Some studies consider the existence of a glottal stop when a proper consonant is absent. This view is reflected in the writing, which has a special sign for the glottal stop / lack of a consonant. The last consonant of a syllable can be doubled.  
All consonant sequences are possible. However, in practice, some consonant combinations (ex. -hm-, -tɾkʃ- &c.) are rare.


Examples of valid syllables:  
Examples of valid syllables:  
Line 258: Line 118:
| '''wi'''
| '''wi'''
| '''koj'''
| '''koj'''
| '''jɔg'''
| '''gjɔ'''
| '''tɾunn'''
| '''pɾujn'''
| '''kʃatɾ'''
| '''kʃtɾa'''
| '''lœmm'''
| '''fʃtlœmbz'''
|}
|}


==Stress==
==Stress==
In the literary dialect, considered official, words are stressed on the next-to-last syllable. However, if the last syllable contains the consonant /tɾ/, it will be stressed.
In the standard pronunciation, words are stressed on the next-to-last syllable. However, if the last syllable contains the consonant /tɾ/, it will be stressed.


Ex.:
Ex.:
Line 271: Line 131:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| '''kanar'''  
| '''<u>ka</u>nar'''  
<tt>/ˈka.nar/</tt>
<tt>/ˈka.nar/</tt>
| '''ostrøndɛl'''  
| '''os<u>trøn</u>dɛl'''  
<tt>/os.ˈtɾøn.dɛl/</tt>
<tt>/os.ˈtɾøn.dɛl/</tt>
| '''tefʃiv'''  
| '''<u>tef</u>ʃiv'''  
<tt>/ˈtef.ʃiv/</tt>
<tt>/ˈtef.ʃiv/</tt>
| '''dasutɾ'''  
| '''da<u>sutɾ</u>'''  
<tt>/daˈsutɾ/</tt>
<tt>/daˈsutɾ/</tt>
| '''maʃkintɾod'''  
| '''maʃkin<u>tɾod</u>'''  
<tt>/maʃ.kinˈtɾod/</tt>
<tt>/maʃ.kinˈtɾod/</tt>
|}
Doubled vowels in the last syllable may sound as a long, stressed vowel; however, they are actually two separate vowels, each one in a different syllable, with stress falling on the first one (or on the last, in case that syllable contains the consonant '''tr'''). It is not uncommon to hear an epenthetic '''h''', '''j''' or '''w''' between the two vowels.
Ex.:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| '''kaj<u>na</u>ar'''
<tt>/kaj.ˈna.ar/</tt>, <br/>
<tt>/kaj.ˈna.har/</tt> <br/>
| '''pakisa<u>atr</u>'''
<tt>/pa.ki.sa.ˈatr/</tt>,  <br/>
<tt>/pa.ki.sa.ˈhatr/</tt> <br/>
| '''tøndel<u>li</u>in'''
<tt>/tøn.del.ˈli.in/</tt>,  <br/>
<tt>/tøn.del.ˈli.jin/</tt>,  <br/>
<tt>/tøn.del.ˈli.hin/</tt>
| '''talde<u>sy</u>ys'''
<tt>/tal.de.ˈsy.ys/</tt>, <br/>
<tt>/tal.de.ˈsy.hys/</tt> <br/>
|}
|}


=Writing=
=Writing=


[[Dahur script]] consists in an alphasyllabary consisting in combinations of two consonants to which modifiers are added to indicate vowels.
[[Dahur script]] consists in an alphasyllabary consisting in separate letters indicating consonants, a combination of separate letters and diacritics to indicate vowels, as well as certain special letters for individual syllables.


=Morphology=
=Morphology=
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=== Number ===
=== Number ===
Nouns in Dahur have a singular and a plural. The plural ending varies according to noun class and to case. There is also a dual number, which is valid only for nouns normally occurring in pairs. Mass or collective nouns have a singulative inflection.
Nouns in Dahur have a singular and a plural. The plural ending varies according to noun class and to case. There is also a dual number, which is valid only for nouns normally occurring in pairs. Mass or collective nouns have a singulative inflection, but this is not very systematically indicated.




Line 345: Line 227:
|-
|-
|class 1
|class 1
|'''krass'''
|'''grats'''
"boy"
"boy"
|'''krassen'''
|'''gratsen'''
"boys"
"boys"
| -
| -
Line 357: Line 239:
|'''kɛʃevlin'''
|'''kɛʃevlin'''
"hammers"
"hammers"
|'''kɛʃevas'''
|'''kɛʃevs'''
"pair of hammers" (traditionally used by blacksmiths)
"pair of hammers" (traditionally used by blacksmiths)
| -
| -
|-
|-
|class 3
|class 3
|'''halan'''
|'''halajn'''
"water"
"water"
|'''halenn'''
|'''halejnn'''
"waters" (i.e. in a flood)
"waters" (i.e. in a flood)
|'''halanas'''
|'''halajns'''
"The Two Waters" (the river Okanuma and the lake Kassanjas)
"The Two Waters" (the river Okanuma and the lake Kassanjas)
|'''halany'''
|'''halajny'''
"a drop of water"
"a drop of water"
|-
|-
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|'''astrønɛljan'''
|'''astrønɛljan'''
"ideas"
"ideas"
|'''astrønɛlas'''
|'''astrønɛls'''
"a couple ideas"
"a couple ideas"
| -
| -
Line 411: Line 293:
|-
|-
|rowspan="3"|class 1
|rowspan="3"|class 1
|'''fatlaj'''
|'''katlaj'''
"girlfriend"
"girlfriend"
|'''fatlajen'''
|'''katlajen'''
|-
|-
|'''dukʃatr'''
|'''dukʃatr'''
Line 428: Line 310:
|'''takojlin'''
|'''takojlin'''
|-
|-
|'''upsan'''
|'''uhpsan'''
"paper"
"paper"
|'''upsanlin'''
|'''uhpsanlin'''
|-
|-
|'''dasutr'''
|'''dasutr'''
Line 474: Line 356:
|'''tʃeptal'''
|'''tʃeptal'''
"cloud"
"cloud"
|'''tʃapatlin'''
|'''tʃapatlin''', '''tʃaptlin'''
|-
|-
|rowspan="3"|class 4
|rowspan="3"|class 4
|'''kraus'''
|'''kraus'''
"ear"
"ear"
|'''krosni'''
|'''krojsni'''
|-
|-
|'''ɛmmlew'''
|'''ɛmblew'''
"hat"
"hat"
|'''ɛmbalni'''
|'''ɛmbalni'''
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|'''krikter'''
|'''krikter'''
"helmet"
"helmet"
|'''krukni'''
|'''kruktni'''
|-
|-
|}
|}
=== Case ===
Dahur nouns inflect for the following cases:
* '''nominative''' (subject, predicative)
* '''accusative''' (direct object, motion towards)
* '''dative''' (indirect object)
* '''genitive''' (possession, partitive, origin)
* '''locative''' (location, placement)
* '''instrumental''' (instrument, means, company)
* '''ablative''' (adverbial)
* '''ergative''' (agent of the passive voice)
All cases except the nominative and the ergative can be used with prepositions.
Certain nouns, mostly nouns indicating human beings, also show a vocative form, mostly formed with the ending '''-e''', but usually irregular.
Certain nouns, for example nouns indicating mass or food, show a partitive case, usually formed with the ending '''-(i)t'''.


=== Inflection ===
=== Inflection ===
Line 496: Line 396:




{| class="wikitable"
|-
|
!colspan="3"|Class 1
|
!colspan="3"|Class 2
|
!colspan="3"|Class 3
|
!colspan="3"|Class 4
|
!colspan="3"|Class 5
|-
|
!Sing.
!Dual
!Pl.
|
!Sing.
!Dual
!Pl.
|
!Sing.
!Dual
!Pl.
|
!Sing.
!Dual
!Pl.
|
!Sing.
!Dual
!Pl.
|-
!Nominative
|'''-'''
|'''-s'''
|'''-en'''
|
| -
|'''-s'''
|'''-lin'''
|
| -
|'''-s'''
|'''-n'''
|
| -
|'''-is'''
|'''-ni'''
|
| -
|'''-s'''
|'''-jan'''
|-
!Accusative
|'''-a'''
|'''-as'''
|'''-an'''
|
|'''-a'''
|'''-as'''
|'''-lajn'''
|
|'''-a'''
|'''-as'''
|'''-an'''
|
|'''-a'''
|'''-jas'''
|'''-nja'''
|
|'''-a'''
|'''-as'''
|'''-jan'''
|-
!Dative
|'''-u'''
|'''-us'''
|'''-un'''
|
|'''-u'''
|'''-us'''
|'''-lun'''
|
|'''-u'''
|'''-us'''
|'''-wan'''
|
|'''-u'''
|'''-ujs'''
|'''-nu'''
|
|'''-u'''
|'''-us'''
|'''-ujn'''
|-
!Genitive
|'''-ak'''
|'''-ask'''
|'''-ken'''
|
|'''-ik'''
|'''-isk'''
|'''-link'''
|
|'''-aʃ'''
|'''-ʃas'''
|'''-ʃan'''
|
|'''-iʃ'''
|'''-siʃ'''
|'''-niʃ'''
|
|'''-ik'''
|'''-isk'''
|'''-jank'''
|-
!Locative
|'''-ebb'''
|'''-eps'''
|'''-emb'''
|
|'''-ebb'''
|'''-eps'''
|'''-limb'''
|
|'''-ebb'''
|'''-eps'''
|'''-emb'''
|
|'''-ebb'''
|'''-bis'''
|'''-nibb'''
|
|'''-ebb'''
|'''-eps'''
|'''-jamb'''
|-
!Instrumental
|'''-om'''
|'''-oms'''
|'''-nom'''
|
|'''-om'''
|'''-oms'''
|'''-lom'''
|
|'''-om'''
|'''-oms'''
|'''-nom'''
|
|'''-om'''
|'''-joms'''
|'''-njom'''
|
|'''-om'''
|'''-oms'''
|'''-njom'''
|-
!Ablative
|'''-ɛv'''
|'''-ɛfs'''
|'''-nɛv'''
|
|'''-ɛv'''
|'''-ɛfs'''
|'''-lɛnv''', '''-lɛv'''
|
|'''-ɛv'''
|'''-ɛfs'''
|'''-nɛv'''
|
|'''-ɛv'''
|'''-jɛfs'''
|'''-njɛv'''
|
|'''-ɛv'''
|'''-ɛfs'''
|'''-njɛv'''
|-
!Ergative
|'''-øtr'''
|'''-søtr'''
|'''-trøn'''
|
|'''-øtr'''
|'''-søtr'''
|'''-løtr'''
|
|'''-øtr'''
|'''-søtr'''
|'''-trøn'''
|
|'''-øtr'''
|'''-sjøtr'''
|'''-trøjn'''
|
|'''-øtr'''
|'''-søtr'''
|'''-trøjn'''
|}
<!---
* The '''nominative''' case is the basic form of nouns.
* The '''nominative''' case is the basic form of nouns.
* The '''accusative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-a'''.  
* The '''accusative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-a'''.  
Line 504: Line 608:
* The '''ergative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-øtr'''.  
* The '''ergative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-øtr'''.  
* The '''ablative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ɛv'''.  
* The '''ablative''' case is indicated by the enging '''-ɛv'''.  
-->


When an ending starting with a vowel is applied, a final '''-i''' becomes '''-j-''', and a final '''-u''' becomes '''-w-'''; otherwise, an '''-h-''' is added. Ex.:  
When an ending starting with a vowel is applied, a final '''-i''' becomes '''-j-''', and a final '''-u''' becomes '''-w-'''; otherwise, an '''-h-''' is added. Ex.:  
Line 509: Line 614:
* '''dula''' "babysitter", '''dulahen''' "babysitters"
* '''dula''' "babysitter", '''dulahen''' "babysitters"
* '''agdari''' "prisoner", '''agdarjen''' "prisoners"
* '''agdari''' "prisoner", '''agdarjen''' "prisoners"
* '''kanarni''' "eyes", '''kanarnja''' "eyes (accus.)", '''kanarnjus''' "in the eyes", '''kanarnjɛv''' "from the eyes"
* '''pakpaki''' "louse", '''pakpakja''' "louse (accus.)", '''pakpakjaʃ''' "of a louse", '''pakpakjom''' "by a louse"
* '''pakpaki''' "louse", '''pakpakja''' "louse (accus.)", '''pakpakjiʃ''' "of a louse", '''pakpakjom''' "by a louse"
 




Case endings are added to the plural ending.


In the following tables, you have some examples of nouns of the various classes, fully inflected for number and case.
In the following tables, you have some examples of nouns of the various classes, fully inflected for number and case.
* Class 1: '''grats''' "boy"
* Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' "hammer"
* Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' "cloud"
* Class 4: '''kraus''' "ear"
* Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' "idea"


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|colspan="3"|Class 1: '''krass''' "boy"  
|colspan="4"|Class 1: '''grats''' "boy"  
|-
|-
!
!
!Singular
!Singular
!Dual
!Plural
!Plural
|-
|-
!Nominative
!Nominative
|'''krass'''
|'''grats'''
|'''krassen'''
|'''gratss'''
|'''gratsen'''
|-
|-
!Accusative
!Accusative
|'''krassa'''
|'''gratsa'''
|'''krassena'''
|'''gratsas'''
|'''gratsan'''
|-
|-
!Dative
!Dative
|'''krassi'''
|'''gratsu'''
|'''krassensi'''
|'''gratsus'''
|'''gratsun'''
|-
|-
!Genitive
!Genitive
|'''krassak'''
|'''gratsak'''
|'''krassenak'''
|'''gratsask'''
|'''gratsken'''
|-
|-
!Locative
!Locative
|'''krassus'''
|'''gratsebb'''
|'''krassenus'''
|'''gratseps'''
|'''gratsemb'''
|-
|-
!Instrumental
!Instrumental
|'''krassem'''
|'''gratsom'''
|'''krassenem'''
|'''gratsoms'''
|'''gratsnom'''
|-
!Ablative
|'''gratsɛv'''
|'''gratsɛfs'''
|'''gratsnɛv'''
|-
|-
!Ergative
!Ergative
|'''krassøtr'''
|'''gratsøtr'''
|'''krassenøtr'''
|'''gratssøtr'''
|'''gratsetrøn'''
|-
|-
!Ablative
!Vocative
|'''krassɛv'''
|'''gratse'''
|'''krassenɛv'''
|'''gratses'''
|'''gratsen'''
|}
|}


Line 561: Line 687:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|colspan="3"|Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' "hammer"  
|colspan="4"|Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' "hammer"  
|-
|-
!
!
!Singular
!Singular
!Dual
!Plural
!Plural
|-
|-
!Nominative
!Nominative
|'''kɛʃev'''
|'''kɛʃev'''
|'''kɛʃevs'''
|'''kɛʃevlin'''
|'''kɛʃevlin'''
|-
|-
!Accusative
!Accusative
|'''kɛʃeva'''
|'''kɛʃeva'''
|'''kɛʃevlina'''
|'''kɛʃevas'''
|'''kɛʃevlajn'''
|-
|-
!Dative
!Dative
|'''kɛʃevsi'''
|'''kɛʃevu'''
|'''kɛʃevlinsi'''
|'''kɛʃevus'''
|'''kɛʃevlun'''
|-
|-
!Genitive
!Genitive
|'''kɛʃevis'''
|'''kɛʃevik'''
|'''kɛʃevlinis'''
|'''kɛʃevisk'''
|'''kɛʃevlink'''
|-
|-
!Locative
!Locative
|'''kɛʃevus'''
|'''kɛʃevebb'''
|'''kɛʃevlinus'''
|'''kɛʃeveps'''
|'''kɛʃevlimb'''
|-
|-
!Instrumental
!Instrumental
|'''kɛʃevum'''
|'''kɛʃevom'''
|'''kɛʃevlinum'''
|'''kɛʃevoms'''
|'''kɛʃevlom'''
|-
!Ablative
|'''kɛʃevɛv'''
|'''kɛʃevɛfs'''
|'''kɛʃevlɛnv''', '''kɛʃevlɛv'''
|-
|-
!Ergative
!Ergative
|'''kɛʃevøtr'''
|'''kɛʃevøtr'''
|'''kɛʃevlinøtr'''
|'''kɛʃevsøtr'''
|-
|'''kɛʃevløtr'''
!Ablative
|'''kɛʃevɛjv'''
|'''kɛʃevlinɛjv'''
|}
|}


Line 603: Line 738:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|colspan="3"|Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' "cloud"  
|colspan="4"|Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' "cloud"  
|-
|-
!
!
!Singular
!Singular
!Dual
!Plural
!Plural
|-
|-
!Nominative
!Nominative
|'''tʃeptal'''
|'''tʃeptal'''
|'''tʃapatlin'''
|'''tʃeptals'''
|'''tʃaptlin'''
|-
|-
!Accusative
!Accusative
|'''tʃeptala'''
|'''tʃeptala'''
|'''tʃapatlina'''
|'''tʃeptalas'''
|'''tʃaptlijan''', '''tʃaptljan'''
|-
|-
!Dative
!Dative
|'''tʃeptalsi'''
|'''tʃeptalu'''
|'''tʃapatlinsi'''
|'''tʃeptalus'''
|'''tʃaptliwan'''
|-
|-
!Genitive
!Genitive
|'''tʃeptalis'''
|'''tʃeptalaʃ'''
|'''tʃapatlinis'''
|'''tʃeptalʃas'''
|'''tʃaptliʃan'''
|-
|-
!Locative
!Locative
|'''tʃeptalus'''
|'''tʃeptalebb'''
|'''tʃapatlinus'''
|'''tʃeptaleps'''
|'''tʃaptlijemb''', '''tʃaptljemb'''
|-
|-
!Instrumental
!Instrumental
|'''tʃeptalum'''
|'''tʃeptalom'''
|'''tʃapatlinum'''
|'''tʃeptaloms'''
|'''tʃaptlinom'''
|-
!Ablative
|'''tʃeptalɛv'''
|'''tʃeptalɛfs'''
|'''tʃaptlinɛv'''
|-
|-
!Ergative
!Ergative
|'''tʃeptaløtr'''
|'''tʃeptaløtr'''
|'''tʃapatlinøtr'''
|'''tʃeptalsøtr'''
|'''tʃaptlitrøn'''
|-
|-
!Ablative
!Partitive
|'''tʃeptalɛjv'''
|'''tʃeptalt'''
|'''tʃapatlinɛjv'''
|'''tʃeptalts'''
|'''tʃaptlint'''
|}
|}


Line 645: Line 794:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|colspan="3"|Class 4: '''kraus''' "ear"  
|colspan="4"|Class 4: '''kraus''' "ear"  
|-
|-
!
!
!Singular
!Singular
!Dual
!Plural
!Plural
|-
|-
!Nominative
!Nominative
|'''kraus'''
|'''kraus'''
|'''krosni'''
|'''krausis'''
|'''krojsni'''
|-
|-
!Accusative
!Accusative
|'''krausa'''
|'''krausa'''
|'''krosnia'''
|'''krausjas'''
|'''krojsnja'''
|-
|-
!Dative
!Dative
|'''kraussi'''
|'''krausu'''
|'''krosnisi'''
|'''krausujs'''
|'''krojsnu'''
|-
|-
!Genitive
!Genitive
|'''krausis'''
|'''krausiʃ'''
|'''krosniis'''
|'''kraussiʃ'''
|'''krojsniʃ'''
|-
|-
!Locative
!Locative
|'''krausus'''
|'''krausebb'''
|'''krosnius'''
|'''krauseps'''
|'''krojsnibb'''
|-
|-
!Instrumental
!Instrumental
|'''krausum'''
|'''krausom'''
|'''krosnium'''
|'''krausoms'''
|'''krojsnjom'''
|-
!Ablative
|'''krausɛv'''
|'''krausɛfs'''
|'''krojsnjɛv'''
|-
|-
!Ergative
!Ergative
|'''krausøtr'''
|'''krausøtr'''
|'''krosniøtr'''
|'''krausjøtr'''
|'''krojstrøjn'''
|}
 
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|colspan="4"|Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' "idea"
|-
!
!Singular
!Dual
!Plural
|-
!Nominative
|'''astrønɛl'''
|'''astrønɛls'''
|'''astrønɛljan'''
|-
!Accusative
|'''astrønɛla'''
|'''astrønɛlas'''
|'''astrønɛljan'''
|-
!Dative
|'''astrønɛlu'''
|'''astrønɛlus'''
|'''astrønɛlujn'''
|-
!Genitive
|'''astrønɛlik'''
|'''astrønɛlisk'''
|'''astrønɛljank'''
|-
!Locative
|'''astrønɛlebb'''
|'''astrønɛleps'''
|'''astrønɛljamb'''
|-
!Instrumental
|'''astrønɛlom'''
|'''astrønɛloms'''
|'''astrønɛlnjom'''
|-
|-
!Ablative
!Ablative
|'''krausɛv'''
|'''astrønɛlɛv'''
|'''krosniɛv'''
|'''astrønɛlɛfs'''
|'''astrønɛlnjɛv'''
|-
!Ergative
|'''astrønɛløtr'''
|'''astrønɛlsøtr'''
|'''astrønɛltrøjn'''
|-
!Partitive
|'''astrønɛlt'''
|'''astrønɛlts'''
|'''astrønɛljant'''
|}
|}


Line 693: Line 908:
|
|
!Singular
!Singular
!Dual
!Plural
!Plural
!Dual
!Singulative  
!Singulative  
|-
|-
!Nominative
!Nominative
|'''tru'''
|'''tru'''
|'''gas'''
|'''tann'''
|'''tann'''
|'''gas'''
|'''try'''
|'''try'''
|-
|-
!Accusative
!Accusative
|'''na'''
|'''na'''
|'''ga'''
|'''ta'''
|'''ta'''
|'''ga'''
|'''ny'''
|'''ny'''
|-
|-
!Dative
!Dative
|'''kʃi'''
|'''kʃu'''
|'''tisi'''
|'''gu'''
|'''gisi'''
|'''tu'''
|'''kʃi'''
|'''kʃu'''
|-
|-
!Genitive
!Genitive
|'''kis'''
|'''kis'''
|'''gak'''
|'''tak'''
|'''tak'''
|'''gak'''
|'''kis'''
|'''kis'''
|-
|-
!Locative
!Locative
|'''dus'''
|'''debb'''
|'''tus'''
|'''gebb'''
|'''gus'''
|'''tebb'''
|'''dus'''
|'''debb'''
|-
|-
!Instrumental
!Instrumental
|'''trom'''
|'''trom'''
|'''tem'''
|'''gom'''
|'''gem'''
|'''tom'''
|'''trom'''
|'''trom'''
|-
!Ablative
|'''dɛv'''
|'''gɛv'''
|'''tɛv'''
|'''dɛv'''
|-
|-
!Ergative
!Ergative
|'''trø'''
|'''trø'''
|'''gøtr'''
|'''tøtr'''
|'''tøtr'''
|'''gøtr'''
|'''trø'''
|'''trø'''
|}
=== Indefinite Article ===
Dahur has no proper indefinite article.
If it's really necessary to mark a noun phrase as indefinite, an indefinite pronoun may be used. The most common is '''lum''' (invariable), meaning "some", "a certain" &c.
== Prepositions ==
Prepositions in Dahur require the noun in one of the following cases:
* accusative
* dative
* genitive
* ablative
* instrumental
* locative
The nominative and the ergative are '''never''' used with prepositions.
In the table below you have the most common Dahur prepositions:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Preposition
!Case
!Meaning
|-
|'''dun'''
|''locative'', ''accusative of movement''
|inside
|-
|rowspan="2"|'''yin'''
|''dative''
|for, in behalf of
|-
|''accusative''
|towards
|-
|'''ari''', '''ar'''
|''genitive''
|from, out of
|-
|'''yuʃ'''
|''genitive'', ''ablative''
|because of
|-
|'''vøj'''
|''locative''
|through
|-
|'''syn'''
|''locative''; ''accusative of movement''
|near
|-
|'''kʃe'''
|''genitive''
|since, ago
|-
|'''pɛn'''
|''locative''; ''accusative of movement''
|besides, next to
|-
|'''lujg'''
|''locative''; ''accusative of movement''
|in front of
|-
|'''mœh'''
|''ablative''
|without
|-
|'''sto'''
|''locative''; ''accusative of movement''
|on, on top of
|-
|'''krɔj'''
|''locative''; ''accusative of movement''
|under
|-
|'''tjɛs'''
|''genitive''
|before (time)
|-
|'''gwaj'''
|''accusative''
|after (time)
|-
|'''fyj'''
|''ablative''
|during
|-
|'''vlen'''
|''instrumental''
|despite
|-
|'''uhk'''
|''genitive''
|except
|-
|'''uzd'''
|''dative''
|instead of
|-
|-
!Ablative
|'''blas'''
|'''dɛv'''
|''locative''; ''accusative of movement''
|'''tɛv'''
|behind
|'''gɛv'''
|'''dɛv'''
|}
|}
Examples:
* '''yin na hedana''' "towards the house"
* '''dun na hedana''' "into the house"
* '''ar kis hedanik''' "from the house", "out of the house"
* '''syn debb hedanebb''' "near the house"
* '''syn na hedana''' "going near of the house"
* '''pɛn debb hedanebb''' "besides the house", "next to the house"
* '''pɛn na hedana''' "going next to the house"
* '''lujg debb hedanebb''' "in front to the house"
* '''lujg na hedana''' "going to the front of the house"
* '''mœh dɛv hedanɛv''' "without the house"
* '''sto debb hedanebb''' "on top of the house"
* '''sto na hedana''' "going onto (the top of) the house"
* '''krɔj debb hedanebb''' "under the house"
* '''uzd kʃu hedanu''' "instead of the house"
* '''blas debb hedanebb''' "behind the house"
* '''blas na hedana''' "going behind the house"


== Adjectives ==
== Adjectives ==
Line 751: Line 1,096:
Attributive adjectives in Dahur are invariable and come before the noun. Ex.:  
Attributive adjectives in Dahur are invariable and come before the noun. Ex.:  


* '''fɛren krass''' "a smart boy"
* '''fɛren grats''' "a smart boy"
* '''duʃ halan''' "clean water"
* '''duʃ halajn''' "clean water"
* '''selak kanaris''' "pretty eyes"
* '''selak kanaris''' "pretty eyes"


Line 917: Line 1,262:
|"false news", "fake news"
|"false news", "fake news"
|}
|}


=== Predicative Adjectives ===
=== Predicative Adjectives ===
Line 928: Line 1,272:
|'''Tru astrønɛl laje makʃølen.''' || The idea is great.
|'''Tru astrønɛl laje makʃølen.''' || The idea is great.
|-
|-
|'''Tru krass alanje befitra.''' || The boy is tired.
|'''Tru grats alanje befitra.''' || The boy is tired.
|}
|}


Line 937: Line 1,281:
|'''Tru astrønɛl makʃølnaje.''' || The idea is great.
|'''Tru astrønɛl makʃølnaje.''' || The idea is great.
|-
|-
|'''Tru krass abefitranje.''' || The boy is tired.
|'''Tru grats abefitranje.''' || The boy is tired.
|}
|}


Line 1,283: Line 1,627:
|1,000th || '''tatrimiiki'''
|1,000th || '''tatrimiiki'''
|}
|}
== Pronouns ==
=== Personal Pronouns ===
Personal Pronouns in Dahur indicate person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and number (singular, dual, plural).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|rowspan="2"|1st Person
|'''dɛ''' "I" , "me"
|'''ʃes''' "we both"
|'''ʃɛn''' "we", "us"
|-
!Singular
!Dual
!Plural
|-
!Nominative
|'''dɛ'''
|'''ʃes'''
|'''ʃɛn'''
|-
!Accusative
|'''dɛa''', '''da'''
|'''ʃeas''', '''ʃas'''
|'''ʃan'''
|-
!Dative
|'''dɛw''', '''du'''
|'''ʃeus''', '''ʃews''', '''ʃus'''
|'''ʃɛun''', '''ʃɛwn''', '''ʃun'''
|-
!Genitive
|'''dɛk'''
|'''ʃesk'''
|'''ʃɛkɛn''', '''ʃkɛn'''
|-
!Locative
|'''dɛbb'''
|'''ʃeps'''
|'''ʃɛmb'''
|-
!Instrumental
|'''dɛm'''
|'''ʃems'''
|'''ʃɛom''', '''ʃom'''
|-
!Ablative
|'''dɛv'''
|'''ʃɛfs'''
|'''ʃɛɛv''', '''ʃɛv'''
|-
!Ergative
|'''dɛjøtr''', '''dɛtr'''
|'''ʃesøtr'''
|'''ʃɛtrøn''', '''ʃtrøn'''
|-
!Partitive
| -
|'''ʃets'''
|'''ʃɛnt'''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|rowspan="2"|2nd Person
|'''hej''' "you (sg.), thou"
|'''kwes''' "you both"
|'''kwɛn''' "you (pl.)"
|-
!Singular
!Dual
!Plural
|-
!Nominative
|'''hej'''
|'''kwes'''
|'''kwɛn'''
|-
!Accusative
|'''heja''', '''ja'''
|'''kweas''', '''kwas'''
|'''kwɛan''', '''kwan'''
|-
!Dative
|'''heju''', '''ju'''
|'''kweus'''
|'''kwɛun''', '''kun'''
|-
!Genitive
|'''heik''', '''hejik'''
|'''kwesk'''
|'''kwɛnek''', '''kwɛnk'''
|-
!Locative
|'''heibb''', '''hibb'''
|'''kweps'''
|'''kwɛmb'''
|-
!Instrumental
|'''heim''', '''him'''
|'''kwems'''
|'''kwɛom''', '''kwɛm''', '''kwom'''
|-
!Ablative
|'''hejɛv''', '''jɛv'''
|'''kwɛfs'''
|'''kwɛɛv''', '''kwɛv'''
|-
!Ergative
|'''hejøtr''', '''hjøtr'''
|'''kwesøtr'''
|'''kwɛtrøn'''
|-
!Vocative
|'''heje'''
|'''kwejes'''
|'''kwɛjɛn'''
|-
!Partitive
| -
|'''kwets'''
|'''kwɛnt'''
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|rowspan="2"|3rd Person
|'''nar''' "he", "she", "it"
|'''ras''' "they both"
|'''ren''' "they", "them"
|-
!Singular
!Dual
!Plural
|-
!Nominative
|'''nar'''
|'''ras'''
|'''rɛn'''
|-
!Accusative
|'''nara''', '''ra'''
|'''ras'''
|'''rɛan''', '''ran'''
|-
!Dative
|'''naru''', '''ru'''
|'''raus''', '''raws''', '''rus'''
|'''rɛun''', '''rɛwn''', '''run'''
|-
!Genitive
|'''narɛk''', '''rɛk'''
|'''resk'''
|'''rɛkɛn''', '''ɛrken'''
|-
!Locative
|'''narebb''', '''rebb'''
|'''reps'''
|'''rɛmb'''
|-
!Instrumental
|'''narom''', '''rom'''
|'''rems'''
|'''rɛnom''', '''rom'''
|-
!Ablative
|'''narɛv''', '''rɛv'''
|'''rɛfs'''
|'''rɛɛv''', '''rɛv'''
|-
!Ergative
|'''narøtr''', '''røtr'''
|'''resøtr'''
|'''rɛtrøn''', '''ɛrtrøn'''
|-
!Partitive
| -
|'''rets'''
|'''rɛnt'''
|}
The '''genitive''' forms work as possessive pronouns. In that case, the definite article is optional. Ex.:
* '''tru dɛk astrønɛl''', '''dɛk astrønɛl''' "my idea"
* '''na heik kʃalima''', '''heik kʃalima''' "your hair (accus.)"
* '''trom narɛk kɛʃevom''', '''narɛk kɛʃevom''' "with his/her hammer (instr.)"
* '''tu dɛk menirun''', '''dɛk menirun''' "to my children (dat.)"
=== Demonstrative Pronouns ===
=== Interrogative Pronouns ===
=== Indefinite Pronouns ===


== Verbs ==
== Verbs ==


The personal endings for all verb forms are as follows:  
Verbs in Dahur have different stems indicating aspect. The conjugation uses different sets of endings to indicate tense or time.
 
The basic verb stems are:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Aspect
!Meaning
!Form
|-
|Generic
|''verbal idea without a specific context, time or aspect''
|the basic stem of the verb
|-
|Cursive (Progressive; Continuous)
|''action ongoing at the moment of reference
|prefix '''a-''' and suffix '''-(a)n-'''
|-
|Aorist
|''a complete or punctual action''
|suffix '''-(e)tt-'''
|-
|Perfect
|''the result of an action that happened before the reference time''
|suffix '''-(l)l(a)-'''
|-
|Unrealised (Future)
|''action as not realised in relation to the reference time''
|prefix '''u-''' and suffix '''-(u)ʃ-'''
|-
|Conditional
|''irrealis, usually an action depending on another''
|prefix '''i-''' and suffix '''-i-'''
|}
 
Stem formation is often irregular. 
 
Ex.:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|
!Generic
!Cursive
!Aorist
!Perfect
!Unrealised
!Conditional
|-
|'''kaʃmal''' "take"
|'''kaʃmal-'''
|'''akaʃmaln-'''
|'''kaʃmalett-'''
|'''kaʃmalla-'''
|'''ukaʃmaluʃ-'''
|'''ikaʃmali-'''
|-
|'''la''' "be"
|'''la-'''
|'''alan-'''
|'''latt-'''
|'''lalla-'''
|'''ulauʃ-'''
|'''ilai-'''
|-
|'''wennin''' "live"
|'''wennin-'''
|'''awann-'''
|'''wennett-'''
|'''wennilla-'''
|'''uwenninʃ-'''
|'''iwennini-'''
|-
|'''gadra''' "write"
|'''gadra-'''
|'''agandran-'''
|'''gadrett-'''
|'''gadralla-'''
|'''ugadruʃ-'''
|'''igadri-'''
|-
|'''tefʃiv''' "flee"
|'''tefʃiv-'''
|'''ateʃfan-'''
|'''tefʃivett-'''
|'''tefʃivla-'''
|'''utefʃivuʃ-'''
|'''itefʃivi-'''
|-
|'''maʃkintɾod''' "represent"
|'''maʃkintɾod-'''
|'''amaʃkintɾon-'''
|'''maʃkintɾott-'''
|'''maʃkintɾolla-'''
|'''umaʃkintɾotʃ-'''
|'''imaʃkintɾodi-'''
|-
|'''kajnaar''' "jump"
|'''kajnaar-'''
|'''akajnaan-'''
|'''kajnerett-'''
|'''kajnaalla-'''
|'''ukajnaaruʃ-'''
|'''ikajnaari-'''
|-
|'''taldesyys''' "take care of"
|'''taldesyys-'''
|'''ataldesyyn-'''
|'''taldesyyst-'''
|'''taldesyyll-'''
|'''utaldesyyʃ-'''
|'''italdesyysi-'''
|}
 
 
<!---
The personal endings are :
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|
!Present
!Past
!Future
|-
!1s
|'''-us'''
|'''-sa'''
|'''-os'''
|-
!2s
|'''-im'''
|'''-mis'''
|'''-ojm'''
|-
!3s
|'''-ej'''
|'''-jes'''
|'''-oj'''
|-
!1p
|'''-ɔn'''
|'''-sɔn'''
|'''-on'''
|-
!2p
|'''-ib'''
|'''-ips'''
|'''-ojb'''
|-
!3p
|'''-ɛw'''
|'''-sɛw'''
|'''-wo'''
|}
 
 
The following combinations of stem + ending set occur:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|
|Present
|Past
|Future
|-
|Generic
!Simple
Present
!Habitual
Past ("used to")
!Generic
Future
|-
|Cursive
!Present
Continuous
!Past
Continuous
!Future
Progressive
|-
|Aorist
|
!Simple
Past (Aorist)
!Definite Future
(Specific, Punctual)
|-
|Perfect
!Past
Perfect
!Present
Perfect
!Future
Perfect
|-
|Unrealised
!Unrealised
Past ("would")
!Near
Future
!Future
(Remote)
|-
|Conditional
!Conditional
Past
!Conditional
Present
|
|}
 
 
The following personal endings for all verb forms are as follows:  


* 1s: '''-us'''
* 1s: '''-us'''
* 2s: '''-im'''
* 2s: '''-im'''
* 3s: '''-je'''
* 3s: '''-ej'''
* 1p: '''-tron'''
* 1p: '''-ɔn'''
* 2p: '''-trib'''
* 2p: '''-ib'''
* 3p: '''-trɛw'''
* 3p: '''-ɛw'''


=== Aorist ===
=== Generic (Present) ===
The aorist tense corresponds to the bare stem, to which the personal endings are added. It indicates the verbal action as a complete event. In a main clause, it usually refers to the past, and is so translated. Ex.:  
The generic present tense corresponds to the bare stem, to which the personal endings are added. It mostly indicates the verbal idea without a specific context, time or aspect, and usually corresponds to the simple present tense indicating something as permanent, that is always true, or that repeats indefinitely. Ex.:  


'''kaʃmal''' "take"
'''kaʃmal''' "take"
* 1s: '''kaʃmalus''' "I took"
* 1s: '''kaʃmalus''' "I take"
* 2s: '''kaʃmalim''' "you took"
* 2s: '''kaʃmalim''' "you take"
* 3s: '''kaʃmalje''' "he/she took"
* 3s: '''kaʃmalje''' "he/she takes"
* 1p: '''kaʃmaltron''' "we took"
* 1p: '''kaʃmaltron''' "we take"
* 2p: '''kaʃmaltrib''' "you took"
* 2p: '''kaʃmaltrib''' "you take"
* 3p: '''kaʃmaltrɛw''' "they took"
* 3p: '''kaʃmaltrɛw''' "they take"
 


'''la''' "be (permanently)"
'''la''' "be (permanently)"
Line 1,314: Line 2,072:
* 2p: '''latrib''' "you are"
* 2p: '''latrib''' "you are"
* 3p: '''latrɛw''' "they are"
* 3p: '''latrɛw''' "they are"
'''wennin''' "live"
* 1s: '''wenninus''' "I live"
* 2s: '''wenninim''' "you live"
* 3s: '''wenninje''' "he/she lives"
* 1p: '''wennintron''' "we live"
* 2p: '''wennintrib''' "you live"
* 3p: '''wennintrɛw''' "they live"
=== Cursive (Present Continuous) ===
This tense indicates an action ongoing at the moment of speech. It mostly corresponds to the English Present Continuous (or Progressive).
The verb stem receives the prefix '''a-''' and the suffix '''-(a)n-'''. Some verbs have irregular forms.
Ex.:
'''kaʃmal''' "take"
* 1s: '''akaʃmalnus''' "I'm taking"
* 2s: '''akaʃmalnim''' "you're taking"
* 3s: '''akaʃmalnje''' "he/she's taking"
* 1p: '''akaʃmalantron''' "we're taking"
* 2p: '''akaʃmalantrib''' "you're taking"
* 3p: '''akaʃmalantrɛw''' "they're taking"
'''la''' "be (currently, temporarily)"
* 1s: '''alanus''' "I am"
* 2s: '''alanim''' "you are"
* 3s: '''alanje''' "he/she is"
* 1p: '''alantron''' "we are"
* 2p: '''alantrib''' "you are"
* 3p: '''alantrɛw''' "they are"
'''wennin''' "live"
* 1s: '''awninnus''' "I'm living"
* 2s: '''awninnim''' "you're living"
* 3s: '''awninnje''' "he/she's living"
* 1p: '''awninntron''' "we're living"
* 2p: '''awninntrib''' "you're living"
* 3p: '''awninntrɛw''' "they're living"
=== Aorist (Simple Past) ===
This tense indicates a complete or punctual action in the past, usually with no relation to the present. It is common to associate this tense with a specific time phrase, establishing the moment it happened.
The verb stem receives the suffix '''-doh-'''.
Ex.:
'''kaʃmal''' "take"
* 1s: '''kaʃmaldohus''' "I took"
* 2s: '''kaʃmaldohim''' "you took"
* 3s: '''kaʃmaldohje''' "he/she took"
* 1p: '''kaʃmaldohtron''' "we took"
* 2p: '''kaʃmaldohtrib''' "you took"
* 3p: '''kaʃmaldohtrɛw''' "they took"
'''la''' "be"
* 1s: '''ladohus''' "I was (at some point)"
* 2s: '''ladohim''' "you were"
* 3s: '''ladohje''' "he/she was"
* 1p: '''ladohtron''' "we were"
* 2p: '''ladohtrib''' "you were"
* 3p: '''ladohtrɛw''' "they were"
'''wennin''' "live"
* 1s: '''wennindohus''' "I lived"
* 2s: '''wennindohim''' "you lived"
* 3s: '''wennindohje''' "he/she lived"
* 1p: '''wennindohtron''' "we lived"
* 2p: '''wennindohtrib''' "you lived"
* 3p: '''wennindohtrɛw''' "they lived"
=== Perfect (Present Perfect) ===
The Perfect tense corresponds basically to the Present Perfect, indicating the result of an action that happened in a relatively recent past.
The verb stem receives the suffix '''-et(t)-'''. There are many irregular forms.
Ex.:
'''kaʃmal''' "take"
* 1s: '''kaʃmalettus''' "I've taken"
* 2s: '''kaʃmalettim''' "you've taken"
* 3s: '''kaʃmalettje''' "he/she's taken"
* 1p: '''kaʃmalettron''' "we've taken"
* 2p: '''kaʃmalettrib''' "you've taken"
* 3p: '''kaʃmalettrɛw''' "they've taken"
'''la''' "be"
* 1s: '''laettus''' "I've been"
* 2s: '''laettim''' "you've been"
* 3s: '''laettje''' "he/she's been"
* 1p: '''laettron''' "we've been"
* 2p: '''laettrib''' "you've been"
* 3p: '''laettrɛw''' "they've been"
'''wennin''' "live"
* 1s: '''wennettus''' "I've lived"
* 2s: '''wennettim''' "you've lived"
* 3s: '''wennettje''' "he/she's lived"
* 1p: '''wennettron''' "we've lived"
* 2p: '''wennettrib''' "you've lived"
* 3p: '''wennettrɛw''' "they've lived"
=== Future ===
The future is formed with the prefix '''u-''' and the suffix '''-(u)ʃ-'''.
Ex.:
'''kaʃmal''' "take"
* 1s: '''ukaʃmalʃus''' "I'll take"
* 2s: '''ukaʃmalʃim''' "you'll take"
* 3s: '''ukaʃmaluʃje''' "he/she'll takes"
* 1p: '''ukaʃmaluʃtron''' "we'll take"
* 2p: '''ukaʃmaluʃtrib''' "you'll take"
* 3p: '''ukaʃmaluʃtrɛw''' "they'll take"
'''la''' "be (permanently)"
* 1s: '''ulaʃus''' "I'll be"
* 2s: '''ulaʃim''' "you'll be"
* 3s: '''ulaʃje''' "he/she'll be"
* 1p: '''ulaʃtron''' "we'll be"
* 2p: '''ulaʃtrib''' "you'll be"
* 3p: '''ulaʃtrɛw''' "they'll be"
'''wennin''' "live"
* 1s: '''uwenninʃus''' "I'll live"
* 2s: '''uwenninʃim''' "you'll live"
* 3s: '''uwenninuʃje''' "he/she'll lives"
* 1p: '''uwenninuʃtron''' "we'll live"
* 2p: '''uwenninuʃtrib''' "you'll live"
* 3p: '''uwenninuʃtrɛw''' "they'll live"
=== Conditional ===
The conditional is formed with the prefix '''i-''' and the suffix '''-i-'''.
Ex.:
'''kaʃmal''' "take"
* 1s: '''ikaʃmalius''' "I take"
* 2s: '''ikaʃmaliim''' "you take"
* 3s: '''ikaʃmalije''' "he/she takes"
* 1p: '''ikaʃmalitron''' "we take"
* 2p: '''ikaʃmalitrib''' "you take"
* 3p: '''ikaʃmalitrɛw''' "they take"
'''la''' "be (permanently)"
* 1s: '''ilaius''' "I am"
* 2s: '''ilaiim''' "you are"
* 3s: '''ilaije''' "he/she is"
* 1p: '''ilaitron''' "we are"
* 2p: '''ilaitrib''' "you are"
* 3p: '''ilaitrɛw''' "they are"
'''wennin''' "live"
* 1s: '''iwenninius''' "I live"
* 2s: '''iwenniniim''' "you live"
* 3s: '''iwenninije''' "he/she lives"
* 1p: '''iwenninitron''' "we live"
* 2p: '''iwenninitrib''' "you live"
* 3p: '''iwenninitrɛw''' "they live"
-->

Revision as of 00:58, 16 July 2026

Phonology

Vowels

Dahur vowels are usually short. Double vowels (ex.: aa, ee &c.) may happen, but they are considered as simple vowel sequences.

The following vowels qualities are distinguished:

a e ɛ i o ɔ ø œ u y

The diagram below shows the 10 vowels of Dahur.

In practice, the vowel /a/ may actually vary between /a/, /ä/ and /ɑ/.

Merging of /ø/ and /œ/ is fairly common, especially in more informal contexts, as these two vowels mostly don't occur as minimal pair (except in a couple cases).

Consonants

Dahur consonants are as follows:

Bilabial Labiodental Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m n
Plosive p b t d k g
Sibilant fricative s z ʃ ʒ
Non-sibilant fricative f v h
Approximant j
Tap/Flap/Trill ɾ r
Lateral Approx. l

The rhotic consonant (r) is in free variation and may be realised either as a tap, a flap or a trill. The trill pronunciation (/r/) is more common at the beginning of a syllable, and even more so at the beginning of a word. The tap/flap pronunciation (/ɾ/) is more common in consonant clusters, especially after a plosive.

In Dahur phonology, the combinations tr and kʃ count as single, independent consonants.

Phonotactics

A syllable in Dahur must contain one vowel, which may be preceded and/or followed by any number of consonants. In practice, consonant clusters don't usually go beyond four consonants. For that account, kʃ and tɾ are always considered as single consonants.

All consonant sequences are possible. However, in practice, some consonant combinations (ex. -hm-, -tɾkʃ- &c.) are rare.

Some studies consider the existence of a glottal stop when a proper consonant is absent. This view is reflected in the writing, which has a special sign for the glottal stop / lack of a consonant. The last consonant of a syllable can be doubled.

Examples of valid syllables:

a tɛ en wi koj gjɔ pɾujn kʃtɾa fʃtlœmbz

Stress

In the standard pronunciation, words are stressed on the next-to-last syllable. However, if the last syllable contains the consonant /tɾ/, it will be stressed.

Ex.:

kanar

/ˈka.nar/

ostrøndɛl

/os.ˈtɾøn.dɛl/

tefʃiv

/ˈtef.ʃiv/

dasutɾ

/daˈsutɾ/

maʃkintɾod

/maʃ.kinˈtɾod/

Doubled vowels in the last syllable may sound as a long, stressed vowel; however, they are actually two separate vowels, each one in a different syllable, with stress falling on the first one (or on the last, in case that syllable contains the consonant tr). It is not uncommon to hear an epenthetic h, j or w between the two vowels.

Ex.:


kajnaar

/kaj.ˈna.ar/,
/kaj.ˈna.har/

pakisaatr

/pa.ki.sa.ˈatr/,
/pa.ki.sa.ˈhatr/

tøndelliin

/tøn.del.ˈli.in/,
/tøn.del.ˈli.jin/,
/tøn.del.ˈli.hin/

taldesyys

/tal.de.ˈsy.ys/,
/tal.de.ˈsy.hys/

Writing

Dahur script consists in an alphasyllabary consisting in separate letters indicating consonants, a combination of separate letters and diacritics to indicate vowels, as well as certain special letters for individual syllables.

Morphology

Dahur is a highly flexional language, with a strong presence of irregular forms.

Nouns inflect for number, which is basically singular and plural, but there are also occurrences of dual (for things normally occurring in pairs) and singulative (for individual items of things usually found collectively).

Nouns also inflect for case, usually: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, locative, instrumental, ergative and ablative. Instances of partitive and vocative are also found. The case called ergative is used basically for the agent of the passive voice.

Adjectives show no agreement to nouns, and inflect for degree (comparatives of superiority, equality, inferiority; relative and absolute superlative).


Nouns

Class

Dahurian nouns are divided in five classes, which can be compared to Latin or Greek declensions, as they consist in different inflection patterns, but may also be seen as a form of gender, as class is usually (but not always necessarily) related to the meaning of a noun.


Class 1 Living beings
Class 2 General objects
Class 3 Natural elements; insects
Class 4 Parts of human body; clothing
Class 5 Abstract nouns; traditional imaginary beings


There are no morphological indications related to noun classes in the nominative singular. The differences appear along the inflection of nouns.


Number

Nouns in Dahur have a singular and a plural. The plural ending varies according to noun class and to case. There is also a dual number, which is valid only for nouns normally occurring in pairs. Mass or collective nouns have a singulative inflection, but this is not very systematically indicated.


So, for example:


Class Singular Plural Dual Singulative
class 1 grats

"boy"

gratsen

"boys"

- -
class 2 kɛʃev

"hammer"

kɛʃevlin

"hammers"

kɛʃevs

"pair of hammers" (traditionally used by blacksmiths)

-
class 3 halajn

"water"

halejnn

"waters" (i.e. in a flood)

halajns

"The Two Waters" (the river Okanuma and the lake Kassanjas)

halajny

"a drop of water"

class 4 kanar

"eye"

kanarni

"many eyes" (mostly figuratively)

kanaris

"(two/both) eyes"

-
class 4 kʃalim

"hair"

kʃalimni

"(types of) hair"

- kʃalimy

"a (single) hair"

class 5 astrønɛl

"idea"

astrønɛljan

"ideas"

astrønɛls

"a couple ideas"

-


The plural in classes 1, 2 and 5 is usually regular, obtained with the respective suffixes (-en, -lin, -jan).

Ex.:

Class Singular Plural
class 1 katlaj

"girlfriend"

katlajen
dukʃatr

"boss"

dukʃatren
egastɛv

"farmer"

egastɛven
class 2 takoj

"pin"

takojlin
uhpsan

"paper"

uhpsanlin
dasutr

"document, file"

dasutrlin
class 5 pɛktegal

"angel"

pɛktegaljan
ostrøndɛl

"interruption"

ostrøndɛljan
piktaraʃ

"problem"

piktaraʃjan


In classes 3 and 4, besides the suffixes (-n, -ni), most nouns suffer some sort of mutation, usually affecting only one vowel but non uncommonly consisting of more significative changes.


Ex.:

Class Singular Plural
class 3 pakpaki

"louse"

pakpɛkin
pahalis

"leaf"

pahaljen
tʃeptal

"cloud"

tʃapatlin, tʃaptlin
class 4 kraus

"ear"

krojsni
ɛmblew

"hat"

ɛmbalni
krikter

"helmet"

kruktni

Case

Dahur nouns inflect for the following cases:

  • nominative (subject, predicative)
  • accusative (direct object, motion towards)
  • dative (indirect object)
  • genitive (possession, partitive, origin)
  • locative (location, placement)
  • instrumental (instrument, means, company)
  • ablative (adverbial)
  • ergative (agent of the passive voice)

All cases except the nominative and the ergative can be used with prepositions.

Certain nouns, mostly nouns indicating human beings, also show a vocative form, mostly formed with the ending -e, but usually irregular.

Certain nouns, for example nouns indicating mass or food, show a partitive case, usually formed with the ending -(i)t.


Inflection

Noun declension in Dahur is quite regular, in terms of case and the less usual numbers, viz. the dual and the singulative.


Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5
Sing. Dual Pl. Sing. Dual Pl. Sing. Dual Pl. Sing. Dual Pl. Sing. Dual Pl.
Nominative - -s -en - -s -lin - -s -n - -is -ni - -s -jan
Accusative -a -as -an -a -as -lajn -a -as -an -a -jas -nja -a -as -jan
Dative -u -us -un -u -us -lun -u -us -wan -u -ujs -nu -u -us -ujn
Genitive -ak -ask -ken -ik -isk -link -aʃ -ʃas -ʃan -iʃ -siʃ -niʃ -ik -isk -jank
Locative -ebb -eps -emb -ebb -eps -limb -ebb -eps -emb -ebb -bis -nibb -ebb -eps -jamb
Instrumental -om -oms -nom -om -oms -lom -om -oms -nom -om -joms -njom -om -oms -njom
Ablative -ɛv -ɛfs -nɛv -ɛv -ɛfs -lɛnv, -lɛv -ɛv -ɛfs -nɛv -ɛv -jɛfs -njɛv -ɛv -ɛfs -njɛv
Ergative -øtr -søtr -trøn -øtr -søtr -løtr -øtr -søtr -trøn -øtr -sjøtr -trøjn -øtr -søtr -trøjn


When an ending starting with a vowel is applied, a final -i becomes -j-, and a final -u becomes -w-; otherwise, an -h- is added. Ex.:

  • dula "babysitter", dulahen "babysitters"
  • agdari "prisoner", agdarjen "prisoners"
  • pakpaki "louse", pakpakja "louse (accus.)", pakpakjaʃ "of a louse", pakpakjom "by a louse"



In the following tables, you have some examples of nouns of the various classes, fully inflected for number and case.

  • Class 1: grats "boy"
  • Class 2: kɛʃev "hammer"
  • Class 3: tʃeptal "cloud"
  • Class 4: kraus "ear"
  • Class 5: astrønɛl "idea"


Class 1: grats "boy"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative grats gratss gratsen
Accusative gratsa gratsas gratsan
Dative gratsu gratsus gratsun
Genitive gratsak gratsask gratsken
Locative gratsebb gratseps gratsemb
Instrumental gratsom gratsoms gratsnom
Ablative gratsɛv gratsɛfs gratsnɛv
Ergative gratsøtr gratssøtr gratsetrøn
Vocative gratse gratses gratsen


Class 2: kɛʃev "hammer"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative kɛʃev kɛʃevs kɛʃevlin
Accusative kɛʃeva kɛʃevas kɛʃevlajn
Dative kɛʃevu kɛʃevus kɛʃevlun
Genitive kɛʃevik kɛʃevisk kɛʃevlink
Locative kɛʃevebb kɛʃeveps kɛʃevlimb
Instrumental kɛʃevom kɛʃevoms kɛʃevlom
Ablative kɛʃevɛv kɛʃevɛfs kɛʃevlɛnv, kɛʃevlɛv
Ergative kɛʃevøtr kɛʃevsøtr kɛʃevløtr


Class 3: tʃeptal "cloud"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative tʃeptal tʃeptals tʃaptlin
Accusative tʃeptala tʃeptalas tʃaptlijan, tʃaptljan
Dative tʃeptalu tʃeptalus tʃaptliwan
Genitive tʃeptalaʃ tʃeptalʃas tʃaptliʃan
Locative tʃeptalebb tʃeptaleps tʃaptlijemb, tʃaptljemb
Instrumental tʃeptalom tʃeptaloms tʃaptlinom
Ablative tʃeptalɛv tʃeptalɛfs tʃaptlinɛv
Ergative tʃeptaløtr tʃeptalsøtr tʃaptlitrøn
Partitive tʃeptalt tʃeptalts tʃaptlint


Class 4: kraus "ear"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative kraus krausis krojsni
Accusative krausa krausjas krojsnja
Dative krausu krausujs krojsnu
Genitive krausiʃ kraussiʃ krojsniʃ
Locative krausebb krauseps krojsnibb
Instrumental krausom krausoms krojsnjom
Ablative krausɛv krausɛfs krojsnjɛv
Ergative krausøtr krausjøtr krojstrøjn


Class 5: astrønɛl "idea"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative astrønɛl astrønɛls astrønɛljan
Accusative astrønɛla astrønɛlas astrønɛljan
Dative astrønɛlu astrønɛlus astrønɛlujn
Genitive astrønɛlik astrønɛlisk astrønɛljank
Locative astrønɛlebb astrønɛleps astrønɛljamb
Instrumental astrønɛlom astrønɛloms astrønɛlnjom
Ablative astrønɛlɛv astrønɛlɛfs astrønɛlnjɛv
Ergative astrønɛløtr astrønɛlsøtr astrønɛltrøjn
Partitive astrønɛlt astrønɛlts astrønɛljant

Articles

Definite Article

The definite article inflects for case and number, and is quite irregular.

Singular Dual Plural Singulative
Nominative tru gas tann try
Accusative na ga ta ny
Dative kʃu gu tu kʃu
Genitive kis gak tak kis
Locative debb gebb tebb debb
Instrumental trom gom tom trom
Ablative dɛv gɛv tɛv dɛv
Ergative trø gøtr tøtr trø

Indefinite Article

Dahur has no proper indefinite article.

If it's really necessary to mark a noun phrase as indefinite, an indefinite pronoun may be used. The most common is lum (invariable), meaning "some", "a certain" &c.


Prepositions

Prepositions in Dahur require the noun in one of the following cases:

  • accusative
  • dative
  • genitive
  • ablative
  • instrumental
  • locative

The nominative and the ergative are never used with prepositions.

In the table below you have the most common Dahur prepositions:

Preposition Case Meaning
dun locative, accusative of movement inside
yin dative for, in behalf of
accusative towards
ari, ar genitive from, out of
yuʃ genitive, ablative because of
vøj locative through
syn locative; accusative of movement near
kʃe genitive since, ago
pɛn locative; accusative of movement besides, next to
lujg locative; accusative of movement in front of
mœh ablative without
sto locative; accusative of movement on, on top of
krɔj locative; accusative of movement under
tjɛs genitive before (time)
gwaj accusative after (time)
fyj ablative during
vlen instrumental despite
uhk genitive except
uzd dative instead of
blas locative; accusative of movement behind


Examples:

  • yin na hedana "towards the house"
  • dun na hedana "into the house"
  • ar kis hedanik "from the house", "out of the house"
  • syn debb hedanebb "near the house"
  • syn na hedana "going near of the house"
  • pɛn debb hedanebb "besides the house", "next to the house"
  • pɛn na hedana "going next to the house"
  • lujg debb hedanebb "in front to the house"
  • lujg na hedana "going to the front of the house"
  • mœh dɛv hedanɛv "without the house"
  • sto debb hedanebb "on top of the house"
  • sto na hedana "going onto (the top of) the house"
  • krɔj debb hedanebb "under the house"
  • uzd kʃu hedanu "instead of the house"
  • blas debb hedanebb "behind the house"
  • blas na hedana "going behind the house"


Adjectives

Attributive Adjectives

Attributive adjectives in Dahur are invariable and come before the noun. Ex.:

  • fɛren grats "a smart boy"
  • duʃ halajn "clean water"
  • selak kanaris "pretty eyes"

A few attributes may be expressed by affixes to the noun, instead of the separate adjective. The most common ones are:

Adjective Affix Meaning
nahar -os

(usually deleting the last vowel of the original noun)

"big", "large"
kitr -in-

(before the last vowel of the or. noun)

"small", "little"
suwani -(t)ta-

(before the second vowel of the or. noun)

"good"
daggus, daggussa -aar "bad"

Examples:


With Adjective With Affixed Form Meaning
nahar piktaraʃ piktarʃos "a big problem"
kitr piktaraʃ piktarinaʃ "a little problem"
suwani astrønɛl attastrønɛl "a good idea"
daggus astrønɛl, daggussa astrønɛl astrønɛlaar "a bad idea"


Certain adjectives have a special, shortened form, which is prefixed to nouns when used attributively. The most common ones are:


Adjective Affix Meaning
nahar nah- "big", "large"
kitr ki-

(doubles the initial consonant of the noun)

"small", "little"
suwani suw- (suww- before vowels) "good"
daggus, daggussa dag- (dagg- before vowels) "bad"
sulin sin- "new"
dotrɛ dom- "old"
mahhalis mah- "ancient"
makʃølen, makʃølin møkʃ- "important", "great"
tossan tos-, tan- "beautiful"
abliki killi- "false", "fake"


Examples:


With Adjective With Prefix Meaning
nahar piktaraʃ nahpiktaraʃ "a big problem"
kitr piktaraʃ kippiktaraʃ "a small problem"
suwani astrønɛl suwwastrønɛl "a good idea"
daggus astrønɛl, daggussa astrønɛl daggastrønɛl "a bad idea"
sulin dasutr sindasutr "a new document"
dotrɛ hedan domhedan "an old house"
mahhalis kataʃtevan mahkataʃtevan "an ancient civilization"
makʃølen dasutr, makʃølin dasutr møkʃdasutr "an important document"
makʃølen astrønɛl, makʃølin astrønɛl møkʃastrønɛl "a great idea"
tossan dummal tosdummal, tandummal "a beautiful song"
abliki bɔrakʃ killibɔrakʃ "false news", "fake news"

Predicative Adjectives

An adjective used in predicative function is invariable. Only the full forms of adjectives can be used predicatively.

Usually a linking verb is employed. Ex.:

Tru astrønɛl laje makʃølen. The idea is great.
Tru grats alanje befitra. The boy is tired.


There is also the possibility of turning adjectives into verbs. Ex.:

Tru astrønɛl makʃølnaje. The idea is great.
Tru grats abefitranje. The boy is tired.


The most common way to make an adjective into a verb, implying the idea of "be", is the suffix -a-, which may cause some change in the last syllable of the original adjective. If the adjective already ends in -a, there is no change. Ex.:

Adjective Verb
makʃølen

"great"

makʃølna

"be great"

befitra

"tired"

befitra

"be tired"

suwani

"good"

suwanja

"be good"

daggus

"bad"

daggusa

"be bad"

sulin

"new"

sulna

"be new"

dotrɛ

"old"

dɛtra

"be old"

tossan

"beautiful"

tossana, tosna

"be beautiful"

trapter

"unique"

traptra

"be unique"

ʃɔtma

"sure", "certain"

ʃɔtama

"be sure", "be certain"

kanikli

"appropriate"

kankilja

"be appropriate"

tubbar

"white"

tubabra

"be white"

kindis

"clear"

kinitsa

"be clear"

Another suffix is -(a)st(a)-, meaning "to get" or "to become". The first optional -a- appears when necessary, to avoid unsuitable consonant clusters, while the final -a is only used in the infinitive form of the verb - i.e., without any suffixes. There are some irregular formations.

Ex.:

Adjective Verb
makʃølen

"great"

makʃølnasta

"become great"

befitra

"tired"

befitrasta

"get tired"

nahar

"big, large"

nahasta, narasta

"get big", "increase"

kitr

"little, small"

kitrasta, katrasta, kirrasta

"get smaller", "decrease"

suwani

"good"

suwanasta

"become good"

suwasta, sawasta, suwnasta

"get better", "improve"

daggus , daggussa

"bad"

daggusasta, daggussasta

"become bad"

daggasta

"get worse"

dotrɛ

"old"

dotrɛsta

"become old"

dotrasta

"get older", "to age"

tossan

"beautiful

tossanasta

"become beautiful"

tossasta, tosnasta

"get prettier", "beautify"

abliki

"false", "fake"

ablikasta

"become invalid"

A few other suffixes perform similar tasks, with more specific meanings. These are usually quite regular. The most productive among these suffixes are:

-we "to remain", "still be"
-kas "to seem", "to appear"
-ʃyn "to pretend to be"
-dobb(a)- "to cease to be", "to be no longer"
-guj "to be a little bit"

Ex.:

Adjective Verb
nøssar

"calm"

nøssarwe "remain calm", "keep calm"

nøssarkaʃ "seem/appear calm"

nøssarʃyn "pretend to be calm"

nøssardobba "cease to be calm"

nøssarguj "be a little calm"

dotrɛ

"old"

dotrɛkaʃ "seem/appear old"

dotrɛguj "be a little old"

Numerals

The basic cardinal numbers are:

0 kal, kahtral
1 mihen
2 dahas
3 travis
4 gazen
5 kɛʃav
6 pinjan
7 høtak
8 magɛl
9 donwaʒ
10 zɛhɛv
11 zɛhɛv mihen, zɛvhen
12 zɛhɛv dahas, zɛvdas
13 zɛhɛv travis, zɛvtras
14 zɛhɛv gazen, zɛvzen
15 zɛhɛv kɛʃav, zɛvkʃav
16 zɛhɛv pinjan, zɛvpan
17 zɛhɛv høtak,zɛvhøk
18 zɛhɛv magɛl, zɛvmal
19 zɛhɛv donwaʒ, zɛvdaʒ
20 dahassɛv
30 travissɛv
40 gazennɛv
50 kɛʃavvɛv
60 pinjannɛv
70 høtakkɛv
80 magɛllɛv
90 donwaʒʒɛv
100 lakin
1,000 tatrimi
10,000 zɛhɛv tatrimi

Numbers are composed by joining the base units above, from bigger to lower. Ex.:

23 dahassɛv travis
45 gazennɛv kɛʃav
67 pinjannɛv høtak
89 magɛllɛv donwaʒ
123 lakin dahassɛv travis
456 gazen lakin kɛʃavvɛv pinjan
789 høtak lakin magɛllɛv donwaʒ
1,234 tatrimi dahas lakin travissɛv gazen
5,678 kɛʃav tatrimi pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl
12,345 zɛvdas tatrimi travis lakin gazennɛv kɛʃav
678,910 pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl tatrimi donwaʒ lakin zɛhɛv


Ordinal numbers are created with the suffix -iki. Ex.:


1st miheniki
2nd dahasiki
3rd travisiki
4th gazeniki
5th kɛʃaviki
6th pinjaniki
7th høtakiki
8th magɛliki
9th donwaʒiki
10th zɛhɛviki, zɛhviki
11th zɛvheniki
12th zɛvdasiki
13th zɛvtrasiki
14th zɛvzeniki
15th zɛvkʃaviki
16th zɛvpaniki
17th zɛvhøkiki
18th zɛvmaliki
19th zɛvdaʒiki
20th dahassɛviki
30th travissɛviki
40th gazennɛviki
50th kɛʃavvɛviki
60th pinjannɛviki
70th høtakkɛviki
80th magɛllɛviki
90th donwaʒʒɛviki
100th lakiniki
1,000th tatrimiiki

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Personal Pronouns in Dahur indicate person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and number (singular, dual, plural).


1st Person dɛ "I" , "me" ʃes "we both" ʃɛn "we", "us"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative dɛ ʃes ʃɛn
Accusative dɛa, da ʃeas, ʃas ʃan
Dative dɛw, du ʃeus, ʃews, ʃus ʃɛun, ʃɛwn, ʃun
Genitive dɛk ʃesk ʃɛkɛn, ʃkɛn
Locative dɛbb ʃeps ʃɛmb
Instrumental dɛm ʃems ʃɛom, ʃom
Ablative dɛv ʃɛfs ʃɛɛv, ʃɛv
Ergative dɛjøtr, dɛtr ʃesøtr ʃɛtrøn, ʃtrøn
Partitive - ʃets ʃɛnt


2nd Person hej "you (sg.), thou" kwes "you both" kwɛn "you (pl.)"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative hej kwes kwɛn
Accusative heja, ja kweas, kwas kwɛan, kwan
Dative heju, ju kweus kwɛun, kun
Genitive heik, hejik kwesk kwɛnek, kwɛnk
Locative heibb, hibb kweps kwɛmb
Instrumental heim, him kwems kwɛom, kwɛm, kwom
Ablative hejɛv, jɛv kwɛfs kwɛɛv, kwɛv
Ergative hejøtr, hjøtr kwesøtr kwɛtrøn
Vocative heje kwejes kwɛjɛn
Partitive - kwets kwɛnt



3rd Person nar "he", "she", "it" ras "they both" ren "they", "them"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative nar ras rɛn
Accusative nara, ra ras rɛan, ran
Dative naru, ru raus, raws, rus rɛun, rɛwn, run
Genitive narɛk, rɛk resk rɛkɛn, ɛrken
Locative narebb, rebb reps rɛmb
Instrumental narom, rom rems rɛnom, rom
Ablative narɛv, rɛv rɛfs rɛɛv, rɛv
Ergative narøtr, røtr resøtr rɛtrøn, ɛrtrøn
Partitive - rets rɛnt


The genitive forms work as possessive pronouns. In that case, the definite article is optional. Ex.:

  • tru dɛk astrønɛl, dɛk astrønɛl "my idea"
  • na heik kʃalima, heik kʃalima "your hair (accus.)"
  • trom narɛk kɛʃevom, narɛk kɛʃevom "with his/her hammer (instr.)"
  • tu dɛk menirun, dɛk menirun "to my children (dat.)"

Demonstrative Pronouns

Interrogative Pronouns

Indefinite Pronouns

Verbs

Verbs in Dahur have different stems indicating aspect. The conjugation uses different sets of endings to indicate tense or time.

The basic verb stems are:

Aspect Meaning Form
Generic verbal idea without a specific context, time or aspect the basic stem of the verb
Cursive (Progressive; Continuous) action ongoing at the moment of reference prefix a- and suffix -(a)n-
Aorist a complete or punctual action suffix -(e)tt-
Perfect the result of an action that happened before the reference time suffix -(l)l(a)-
Unrealised (Future) action as not realised in relation to the reference time prefix u- and suffix -(u)ʃ-
Conditional irrealis, usually an action depending on another prefix i- and suffix -i-

Stem formation is often irregular.

Ex.:

Generic Cursive Aorist Perfect Unrealised Conditional
kaʃmal "take" kaʃmal- akaʃmaln- kaʃmalett- kaʃmalla- ukaʃmaluʃ- ikaʃmali-
la "be" la- alan- latt- lalla- ulauʃ- ilai-
wennin "live" wennin- awann- wennett- wennilla- uwenninʃ- iwennini-
gadra "write" gadra- agandran- gadrett- gadralla- ugadruʃ- igadri-
tefʃiv "flee" tefʃiv- ateʃfan- tefʃivett- tefʃivla- utefʃivuʃ- itefʃivi-
maʃkintɾod "represent" maʃkintɾod- amaʃkintɾon- maʃkintɾott- maʃkintɾolla- umaʃkintɾotʃ- imaʃkintɾodi-
kajnaar "jump" kajnaar- akajnaan- kajnerett- kajnaalla- ukajnaaruʃ- ikajnaari-
taldesyys "take care of" taldesyys- ataldesyyn- taldesyyst- taldesyyll- utaldesyyʃ- italdesyysi-


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