Conlangs/Dahur: Difference between revisions

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==Vowels==
==Vowels==
Dahur vowels are usually short. Double vowels (ex.: aa, ee &c.) may happen, but they are considered as simple vowel sequences.
Dahur vowels are usually short. Double vowels (ex.: aa, ee &c.) may happen, but they are considered as simple vowel sequences.
The following vowels qualities are distinguished:
'''a''' '''e''' '''ɛ''' '''i''' '''o''' '''ɔ''' '''ø''' '''œ''' '''u''' '''y'''


The diagram below shows the 10 vowels of Dahur.
The diagram below shows the 10 vowels of Dahur.
Line 13: Line 18:


Merging of /ø/ and /œ/ is fairly common, especially in more informal contexts, as these two vowels mostly don't occur as minimal pair (except in a couple cases).
Merging of /ø/ and /œ/ is fairly common, especially in more informal contexts, as these two vowels mostly don't occur as minimal pair (except in a couple cases).


==Consonants==
==Consonants==
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|-
|-
!Nasal
!Nasal
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /m/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''m'''
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /n/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''n'''
|
|
|
|
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|-
|-
!Plosive
!Plosive
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /p/ /b/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''p''' '''b'''
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /t/ /d/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''t''' '''d'''
|
|
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /k/ /g/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''k''' '''g'''
|
|
|-
|-
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|
|
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /s/ /z/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''s''' '''z'''
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /ʃ/ /ʒ/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''ʃ''' '''ʒ'''
|
|
|
|
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!Non-sibilant fricative
!Non-sibilant fricative
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /f/ /v/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''f''' '''v'''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /h/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''h'''
|-
|-
!Approximant
!Approximant
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|
|
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /j/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''j'''
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|/ɾ/ /r/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''ɾ''' '''r'''
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /l/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''l'''
|
|
|
|
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|}
|}


The rhotic consonant ("r") is in free variation and may be realised either as a tap, a flap or a trill. The trill pronunciation (/r/) is more common at the beginning of a syllable, and even more so at the beginning of a word. The tap/flap pronunciation (/ɾ/) is more common in consonant clusters, especially after a plosive.
The rhotic consonant ('''r''') is in free variation and may be realised either as a tap, a flap or a trill. The trill pronunciation (/r/) is more common at the beginning of a syllable, and even more so at the beginning of a word. The tap/flap pronunciation (/ɾ/) is more common in consonant clusters, especially after a plosive.  
 
In Dahur phonology, the combinations /tɾ/ and /kʃ/ count as single, independent consonants.  


In Dahur phonology, the combinations '''tr''' and '''kʃ''' count as single, independent consonants.


==Phonotactics==
==Phonotactics==
A syllable in Dahur must contain one vowel, which may be preceded and/or followed by any number of consonants. In practice, consonant clusters don't usually go beyond four consonants. For that account, /kʃ/ and /tɾ/ are always considered as single consonants.  
A syllable in Dahur must contain one vowel, which may be preceded and/or followed by any number of consonants. In practice, consonant clusters don't usually go beyond four consonants. For that account, '''kʃ''' and '''tɾ''' are always considered as single consonants.  


All consonant sequences are possible. However, in practice, some consonant combinations (ex. -hm-, -tɾkʃ- &c.) are rare.
All consonant sequences are possible. However, in practice, some consonant combinations (ex. '''-hm-''', '''-tɾkʃ-''' &c.) are rare.


Some studies consider the existence of a glottal stop when a proper consonant is absent. This view is reflected in the writing, which has a special sign for the glottal stop / lack of a consonant. The last consonant of a syllable can be doubled.  
Some studies consider the existence of a glottal stop when a proper consonant is absent. This view is reflected in the writing, which has a special sign for the glottal stop / lack of a consonant. The last consonant of a syllable can be doubled.  
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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| '''kanar'''  
| '''<u>ka</u>nar'''  
<tt>/ˈka.nar/</tt>
<tt>/ˈka.nar/</tt>
| '''ostrøndɛl'''  
| '''os<u>trøn</u>dɛl'''  
<tt>/os.ˈtɾøn.dɛl/</tt>
<tt>/os.ˈtɾøn.dɛl/</tt>
| '''tefʃiv'''  
| '''<u>tef</u>ʃiv'''  
<tt>/ˈtef.ʃiv/</tt>
<tt>/ˈtef.ʃiv/</tt>
| '''dasutɾ'''  
| '''da<u>sutɾ</u>'''  
<tt>/daˈsutɾ/</tt>
<tt>/daˈsutɾ/</tt>
| '''maʃkintɾod'''  
| '''maʃkin<u>tɾod</u>'''  
<tt>/maʃ.kinˈtɾod/</tt>
<tt>/maʃ.kinˈtɾod/</tt>
|}
Doubled vowels in the last syllable may sound as a long, stressed vowel; however, they are actually two separate vowels, each one in a different syllable, with stress falling on the first one (or on the last, in case that syllable contains the consonant '''tr'''). It is not uncommon to hear an epenthetic '''h''', '''j''' or '''w''' between the two vowels.
Ex.:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| '''kaj<u>na</u>ar'''
<tt>/kaj.ˈna.ar/</tt>, <br/>
<tt>/kaj.ˈna.har/</tt> <br/>
| '''pakisa<u>atr</u>'''
<tt>/pa.ki.sa.ˈatr/</tt>,  <br/>
<tt>/pa.ki.sa.ˈhatr/</tt> <br/>
| '''tøndel<u>li</u>in'''
<tt>/tøn.del.ˈli.in/</tt>,  <br/>
<tt>/tøn.del.ˈli.jin/</tt>,  <br/>
<tt>/tøn.del.ˈli.hin/</tt>
| '''talde<u>sy</u>ys'''
<tt>/tal.de.ˈsy.ys/</tt>, <br/>
<tt>/tal.de.ˈsy.hys/</tt> <br/>
|}
|}


=Writing=
=Writing=


[[Dahur script]] consists in an alphasyllabary consisting in combinations of two consonants to which modifiers are added to indicate vowels.
[[Dahur script]] consists in an alphasyllabary consisting in separate letters indicating consonants, a combination of separate letters and diacritics to indicate vowels, as well as certain special letters for individual syllables.


=Morphology=
=Morphology=
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=== Number ===
=== Number ===
Nouns in Dahur have a singular and a plural. The plural ending varies according to noun class and to case. There is also a dual number, which is valid only for nouns normally occurring in pairs. Mass or collective nouns have a singulative inflection.
Nouns in Dahur have a singular and a plural. The plural ending varies according to noun class and to case. There is also a dual number, which is valid only for nouns normally occurring in pairs. Mass or collective nouns have a singulative inflection, but this is not very systematically indicated.




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|-
|-
|}
|}
=== Case ===
Dahur nouns inflect for the following cases:
* '''nominative''' (subject, predicative)
* '''accusative''' (direct object, motion towards)
* '''dative''' (indirect object)
* '''genitive''' (possession, partitive, origin)
* '''locative''' (location, placement)
* '''instrumental''' (instrument, means, company)
* '''ablative''' (adverbial)
* '''ergative''' (agent of the passive voice)
All cases except the nominative and the ergative can be used with prepositions.
Certain nouns, mostly nouns indicating human beings, also show a vocative form, mostly formed with the ending '''-e''', but usually irregular.
Certain nouns, for example nouns indicating mass or food, show a partitive case, usually formed with the ending '''-(i)t'''.


=== Inflection ===
=== Inflection ===
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|
|
|'''-ik'''
|'''-ik'''
|'''-iks'''
|'''-isk'''
|'''-jank'''
|'''-jank'''
|-
|-
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<!---
 
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|colspan="3"|Class 1: '''grats''' "boy"  
|colspan="4"|Class 1: '''grats''' "boy"  
|-
|-
!
!
!Singular
!Singular
!Dual
!Plural
!Plural
|-
|-
!Nominative
!Nominative
|'''grats'''
|'''grats'''
|'''gratss'''
|'''gratsen'''
|'''gratsen'''
|-
|-
!Accusative
!Accusative
|'''gratsa'''
|'''gratsa'''
|'''gratsena'''
|'''gratsas'''
|'''gratsan'''
|-
|-
!Dative
!Dative
|'''gratsi'''
|'''gratsu'''
|'''gratsensi'''
|'''gratsus'''
|'''gratsun'''
|-
|-
!Genitive
!Genitive
|'''gratsak'''
|'''gratsak'''
|'''gratsenak'''
|'''gratsask'''
|'''gratsken'''
|-
|-
!Locative
!Locative
|'''gratsus'''
|'''gratsebb'''
|'''gratsenus'''
|'''gratseps'''
|'''gratsemb'''
|-
|-
!Instrumental
!Instrumental
|'''gratsem'''
|'''gratsom'''
|'''gratsenem'''
|'''gratsoms'''
|'''gratsnom'''
|-
!Ablative
|'''gratsɛv'''
|'''gratsɛfs'''
|'''gratsnɛv'''
|-
|-
!Ergative
!Ergative
|'''gratsøtr'''
|'''gratsøtr'''
|'''gratsenøtr'''
|'''gratssøtr'''
|'''gratsetrøn'''
|-
|-
!Ablative
!Vocative
|'''gratsɛv'''
|'''gratse'''
|'''gratsenɛv'''
|'''gratses'''
|'''gratsen'''
|}
|}


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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|colspan="3"|Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' "hammer"  
|colspan="4"|Class 2: '''kɛʃev''' "hammer"  
|-
|-
!
!
!Singular
!Singular
!Dual
!Plural
!Plural
|-
|-
!Nominative
!Nominative
|'''kɛʃev'''
|'''kɛʃev'''
|'''kɛʃevs'''
|'''kɛʃevlin'''
|'''kɛʃevlin'''
|-
|-
!Accusative
!Accusative
|'''kɛʃeva'''
|'''kɛʃeva'''
|'''kɛʃevlina'''
|'''kɛʃevas'''
|'''kɛʃevlajn'''
|-
|-
!Dative
!Dative
|'''kɛʃevsi'''
|'''kɛʃevu'''
|'''kɛʃevlinsi'''
|'''kɛʃevus'''
|'''kɛʃevlun'''
|-
|-
!Genitive
!Genitive
|'''kɛʃevis'''
|'''kɛʃevik'''
|'''kɛʃevlinis'''
|'''kɛʃevisk'''
|'''kɛʃevlink'''
|-
|-
!Locative
!Locative
|'''kɛʃevus'''
|'''kɛʃevebb'''
|'''kɛʃevlinus'''
|'''kɛʃeveps'''
|'''kɛʃevlimb'''
|-
|-
!Instrumental
!Instrumental
|'''kɛʃevum'''
|'''kɛʃevom'''
|'''kɛʃevlinum'''
|'''kɛʃevoms'''
|'''kɛʃevlom'''
|-
!Ablative
|'''kɛʃevɛv'''
|'''kɛʃevɛfs'''
|'''kɛʃevlɛnv''', '''kɛʃevlɛv'''
|-
|-
!Ergative
!Ergative
|'''kɛʃevøtr'''
|'''kɛʃevøtr'''
|'''kɛʃevlinøtr'''
|'''kɛʃevsøtr'''
|-
|'''kɛʃevløtr'''
!Ablative
|'''kɛʃevɛjv'''
|'''kɛʃevlinɛjv'''
|}
|}


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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|colspan="3"|Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' "cloud"  
|colspan="4"|Class 3: '''tʃeptal''' "cloud"  
|-
|-
!
!
!Singular
!Singular
!Dual
!Plural
!Plural
|-
|-
!Nominative
!Nominative
|'''tʃeptal'''
|'''tʃeptal'''
|'''tʃapatlin'''
|'''tʃeptals'''
|'''tʃaptlin'''
|-
|-
!Accusative
!Accusative
|'''tʃeptala'''
|'''tʃeptala'''
|'''tʃapatlina'''
|'''tʃeptalas'''
|'''tʃaptlijan''', '''tʃaptljan'''
|-
|-
!Dative
!Dative
|'''tʃeptalsi'''
|'''tʃeptalu'''
|'''tʃapatlinsi'''
|'''tʃeptalus'''
|'''tʃaptliwan'''
|-
|-
!Genitive
!Genitive
|'''tʃeptalis'''
|'''tʃeptalaʃ'''
|'''tʃapatlinis'''
|'''tʃeptalʃas'''
|'''tʃaptliʃan'''
|-
|-
!Locative
!Locative
|'''tʃeptalus'''
|'''tʃeptalebb'''
|'''tʃapatlinus'''
|'''tʃeptaleps'''
|'''tʃaptlijemb''', '''tʃaptljemb'''
|-
|-
!Instrumental
!Instrumental
|'''tʃeptalum'''
|'''tʃeptalom'''
|'''tʃapatlinum'''
|'''tʃeptaloms'''
|'''tʃaptlinom'''
|-
!Ablative
|'''tʃeptalɛv'''
|'''tʃeptalɛfs'''
|'''tʃaptlinɛv'''
|-
|-
!Ergative
!Ergative
|'''tʃeptaløtr'''
|'''tʃeptaløtr'''
|'''tʃapatlinøtr'''
|'''tʃeptalsøtr'''
|'''tʃaptlitrøn'''
|-
|-
!Ablative
!Partitive
|'''tʃeptalɛjv'''
|'''tʃeptalt'''
|'''tʃapatlinɛjv'''
|'''tʃeptalts'''
|'''tʃaptlint'''
|}
|}


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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|colspan="3"|Class 4: '''kraus''' "ear"  
|colspan="4"|Class 4: '''kraus''' "ear"  
|-
|-
!
!
!Singular
!Singular
!Dual
!Plural
!Plural
|-
|-
!Nominative
!Nominative
|'''kraus'''
|'''kraus'''
|'''krosni'''
|'''krausis'''
|'''krojsni'''
|-
|-
!Accusative
!Accusative
|'''krausa'''
|'''krausa'''
|'''krosnia'''
|'''krausjas'''
|'''krojsnja'''
|-
|-
!Dative
!Dative
|'''kraussi'''
|'''krausu'''
|'''krosnisi'''
|'''krausujs'''
|'''krojsnu'''
|-
|-
!Genitive
!Genitive
|'''krausis'''
|'''krausiʃ'''
|'''krosniis'''
|'''kraussiʃ'''
|'''krojsniʃ'''
|-
|-
!Locative
!Locative
|'''krausus'''
|'''krausebb'''
|'''krosnius'''
|'''krauseps'''
|'''krojsnibb'''
|-
|-
!Instrumental
!Instrumental
|'''krausum'''
|'''krausom'''
|'''krosnium'''
|'''krausoms'''
|'''krojsnjom'''
|-
!Ablative
|'''krausɛv'''
|'''krausɛfs'''
|'''krojsnjɛv'''
|-
|-
!Ergative
!Ergative
|'''krausøtr'''
|'''krausøtr'''
|'''krosniøtr'''
|'''krausjøtr'''
|-
|'''krojstrøjn'''
!Ablative
|'''krausɛv'''
|'''krosniɛv'''
|}
|}


-->
== Articles ==


=== Definite Article ===


The definite article inflects for case and number, and is quite irregular.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|
|colspan="4"|Class 5: '''astrønɛl''' "idea"
|-
!
!Singular
!Singular
!Dual
!Dual
!Plural
!Plural
!Singulative
|-
|-
!Nominative
!Nominative
|'''tru'''
|'''astrønɛl'''
|'''gas'''
|'''astrønɛls'''
|'''tann'''
|'''astrønɛljan'''
|'''try'''
|-
|-
!Accusative
!Accusative
|'''na'''
|'''astrønɛla'''
|'''ga'''
|'''astrønɛlas'''
|'''ta'''
|'''astrønɛljan'''
|'''ny'''
|-
|-
!Dative
!Dative
|'''kʃu'''
|'''astrønɛlu'''
|'''gu'''
|'''astrønɛlus'''
|'''tu'''
|'''astrønɛlujn'''
|'''kʃu'''
|-
|-
!Genitive
!Genitive
|'''kis'''
|'''astrønɛlik'''
|'''gak'''
|'''astrønɛlisk'''
|'''tak'''
|'''astrønɛljank'''
|'''kis'''
|-
|-
!Locative
!Locative
|'''debb'''
|'''astrønɛlebb'''
|'''gebb'''
|'''astrønɛleps'''
|'''tebb'''
|'''astrønɛljamb'''
|'''debb'''
|-
|-
!Instrumental
!Instrumental
|'''trom'''
|'''astrønɛlom'''
|'''gom'''
|'''astrønɛloms'''
|'''tom'''
|'''astrønɛlnjom'''
|'''trom'''
|-
|-
!Ablative  
!Ablative
|'''dɛv'''
|'''astrønɛlɛv'''
|'''gɛv'''
|'''astrønɛlɛfs'''
|'''tɛv'''
|'''astrønɛlnjɛv'''
|'''dɛv'''
|-
|-
!Ergative
!Ergative
|'''trø'''
|'''astrønɛløtr'''
|'''gøtr'''
|'''astrønɛlsøtr'''
|'''tøtr'''
|'''astrønɛltrøjn'''
|'''trø'''
|-
!Partitive
|'''astrønɛlt'''
|'''astrønɛlts'''
|'''astrønɛljant'''
|}
|}


== Adjectives ==
== Articles ==


=== Attributive Adjectives ===
=== Definite Article ===  
Attributive adjectives in Dahur are invariable and come before the noun. Ex.:
 
* '''fɛren grats''' "a smart boy"
* '''duʃ halan''' "clean water"
* '''selak kanaris''' "pretty eyes"
 
A few attributes may be expressed by affixes to the noun,  instead of the separate adjective. The most common ones are:


The definite article inflects for case and number, and is quite irregular.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!Adjective
|
!Affix
!Singular
!Meaning
!Dual
!Plural
!Singulative
|-
|-
|'''nahar'''
!Nominative
|'''-os'''  
|'''tru'''
(usually deleting the last vowel of the original noun)
|'''gas'''
|"big", "large"
|'''tann'''
|'''try'''
|-
|-
|'''kitr'''
!Accusative
|'''-in-'''  
|'''na'''
(before the last vowel of the or. noun)
|'''ga'''
|"small", "little"
|'''ta'''
|'''ny'''
|-
!Dative
|'''kʃu'''
|'''gu'''
|'''tu'''
|'''kʃu'''
|-
|-
|'''suwani'''
!Genitive
|'''-(t)ta-'''  
|'''kis'''
(before the second vowel of the or. noun)
|'''gak'''
|"good"
|'''tak'''
|'''kis'''
|-
|-
|'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''
!Locative
|'''-aar'''
|'''debb'''
|"bad"
|'''gebb'''
|}
|'''tebb'''
 
|'''debb'''
Examples:
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!With Adjective
!Instrumental
!With Affixed Form
|'''trom'''
!Meaning
|'''gom'''
|'''tom'''
|'''trom'''
|-
|-
|'''nahar piktaraʃ'''
!Ablative
|'''piktarʃos'''  
|'''dɛv'''
|"a big problem"
|'''gɛv'''
|'''tɛv'''
|'''dɛv'''
|-
|-
|'''kitr piktaraʃ'''
!Ergative
|'''piktarinaʃ'''  
|'''trø'''
|"a little problem"
|'''gøtr'''
|-
|'''tøtr'''
|'''suwani astrønɛl'''
|'''trø'''
|'''attastrønɛl'''  
|"a good idea"
|-
|'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''
|'''astrønɛlaar'''
|"a bad idea"
|}
|}


=== Indefinite Article ===


Certain adjectives have a special, shortened form, which is prefixed to nouns when used attributively.  
Dahur has no proper indefinite article.
The most common ones are:  
 
If it's really necessary to mark a noun phrase as indefinite, an indefinite pronoun may be used. The most common is '''lum''' (invariable), meaning "some", "a certain" &c.
 
 
 
== Prepositions ==
 
Prepositions in Dahur require the noun in one of the following cases:  
 
* accusative
* dative
* genitive
* ablative
* instrumental
* locative


The nominative and the ergative are '''never''' used with prepositions.


In the table below you have the most common Dahur prepositions:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!Adjective
!Preposition
!Affix
!Case
!Meaning
!Meaning
|-
|-
|'''nahar'''
|'''dun'''
|'''nah-'''  
|''locative'', ''accusative of movement''
|"big", "large"
|inside
|-
|rowspan="2"|'''yin'''
|''dative''
|for, in behalf of
|-
|-
|'''kitr'''
|''accusative''
|'''ki-'''  
|towards
(doubles the initial consonant of the noun)
|-
|"small", "little"
|'''ari''', '''ar'''
|''genitive''
|from, out of
|-
|-
|'''suwani'''
|'''yuʃ'''
|'''suw-''' ('''suww-''' before vowels)
|''genitive'', ''ablative''
|"good"
|because of
|-
|-
|'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''
|'''vøj'''
|'''dag-''' ('''dagg-''' before vowels)
|''locative''
|"bad"
|through
|-
|-
|'''sulin'''
|'''syn'''
|'''sin-'''  
|''locative''; ''accusative of movement''
|"new"
|near
|-
|-
|'''dotrɛ'''
|'''kʃe'''
|'''dom-'''  
|''genitive''
|"old"
|since, ago
|-
|-
|'''mahhalis'''
|'''pɛn'''
|'''mah-'''  
|''locative''; ''accusative of movement''
|"ancient"
|besides, next to
|-
|-
|'''makʃølen''', '''makʃølin'''
|'''lujg'''
|'''møkʃ-'''  
|''locative''; ''accusative of movement''
|"important", "great"
|in front of
|-
|-
|'''tossan'''
|'''mœh'''
|'''tos-''', '''tan-'''  
|''ablative''
|"beautiful"
|without
|-
|-
|'''abliki'''
|'''sto'''
|'''killi-'''  
|''locative''; ''accusative of movement''
|"false", "fake"
|on, on top of
|-
|'''krɔj'''
|''locative''; ''accusative of movement''
|under
|-
|'''tjɛs'''
|''genitive''
|before (time)
|-
|'''gwaj'''
|''accusative''
|after (time)
|-
|'''fyj'''
|''ablative''
|during
|-
|'''vlen'''
|''instrumental''
|despite
|-
|'''uhk'''
|''genitive''
|except
|-
|'''uzd'''
|''dative''
|instead of
|-
|'''blas'''
|''locative''; ''accusative of movement''
|behind
|}
|}


Line 937: Line 1,073:
Examples:  
Examples:  


* '''yin na hedana''' "towards the house"
* '''dun na hedana''' "into the house"
* '''ar kis hedanik''' "from the house", "out of the house"
* '''syn debb hedanebb''' "near the house"
* '''syn na hedana''' "going near of the house"
* '''pɛn debb hedanebb''' "besides the house", "next to the house"
* '''pɛn na hedana''' "going next to the house"
* '''lujg debb hedanebb''' "in front to the house"
* '''lujg na hedana''' "going to the front of the house"
* '''mœh dɛv hedanɛv''' "without the house"
* '''sto debb hedanebb''' "on top of the house"
* '''sto na hedana''' "going onto (the top of) the house"
* '''krɔj debb hedanebb''' "under the house"
* '''uzd kʃu hedanu''' "instead of the house"
* '''blas debb hedanebb''' "behind the house"
* '''blas na hedana''' "going behind the house"
== Adjectives ==
=== Attributive Adjectives ===
Attributive adjectives in Dahur are invariable and come before the noun. Ex.:
* '''fɛren grats''' "a smart boy"
* '''duʃ halajn''' "clean water"
* '''selak kanaris''' "pretty eyes"
A few attributes may be expressed by affixes to the noun,  instead of the separate adjective. The most common ones are:


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!With Adjective
!Adjective
!With Prefix
!Affix
!Meaning
!Meaning
|-
|-
|'''nahar piktaraʃ'''
|'''nahar'''
|'''nahpiktaraʃ'''  
|'''-os'''  
|"a big problem"
(usually deleting the last vowel of the original noun)
|"big", "large"
|-
|-
|'''kitr piktaraʃ'''
|'''kitr'''
|'''kippiktaraʃ'''  
|'''-in-'''  
|"a small problem"
(before the last vowel of the or. noun)
|"small", "little"
|-
|-
|'''suwani astrønɛl'''
|'''suwani'''
|'''suwwastrønɛl'''  
|'''-(t)ta-'''  
|"a good idea"
(before the second vowel of the or. noun)
|"good"
|-
|-
|'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''
|'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''
|'''daggastrønɛl'''
|'''-aar'''
|"a bad idea"
|"bad"
|-
|}
|'''sulin dasutr'''
 
|'''sindasutr'''
Examples:
|"a new document"
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|'''dotrɛ hedan'''
!With Adjective
|'''domhedan'''
!With Affixed Form
|"an old house"
!Meaning
|-
|-
|'''mahhalis kataʃtevan'''
|'''nahar piktaraʃ'''
|'''mahkataʃtevan'''  
|'''piktarʃos'''  
|"an ancient civilization"
|"a big problem"
|-
|-
|'''makʃølen dasutr''', '''makʃølin dasutr'''
|'''kitr piktaraʃ'''
|'''møkʃdasutr'''  
|'''piktarinaʃ'''  
|"an important document"
|"a little problem"
|-
|-
|'''makʃølen astrønɛl''', '''makʃølin astrønɛl'''
|'''suwani astrønɛl'''
|'''møkʃastrønɛl'''  
|'''attastrønɛl'''  
|"a great idea"
|"a good idea"
|-
|-
|'''tossan dummal'''
|'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''
|'''tosdummal''', '''tandummal'''  
|'''astrønɛlaar'''
|"a beautiful song"
|"a bad idea"
|-
|'''abliki bɔrakʃ'''
|'''killibɔrakʃ'''  
|"false news", "fake news"
|}
|}




=== Predicative Adjectives ===
Certain adjectives have a special, shortened form, which is prefixed to nouns when used attributively.
The most common ones are:
 


An adjective used in predicative function is invariable. Only the full forms of adjectives can be used predicatively.


Usually a linking verb is employed. Ex.:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable
|-
|-
|'''Tru astrønɛl laje makʃølen.''' || The idea is great.
!Adjective
!Affix
!Meaning
|-
|-
|'''Tru grats alanje befitra.''' || The boy is tired.
|'''nahar'''
|}
|'''nah-'''
 
|"big", "large"
 
There is also the possibility of turning adjectives into verbs. Ex.:
{| class="wikitable
|-
|-
|'''Tru astrønɛl makʃølnaje.''' || The idea is great.
|'''kitr'''
|'''ki-'''
(doubles the initial consonant of the noun)
|"small", "little"
|-
|-
|'''Tru grats abefitranje.''' || The boy is tired.
|'''suwani'''
|}
|'''suw-''' ('''suww-''' before vowels)
 
|"good"
 
The most common way to make an adjective into a verb, implying the idea of "be", is the  suffix '''-a-''', which may cause some change in the last syllable of the original adjective. If the adjective already ends in '''-a''', there is no change. Ex.:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!Adjective
|'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''
!Verb
|'''dag-''' ('''dagg-''' before vowels)
|"bad"
|-
|-
|'''makʃølen'''  
|'''sulin'''
"great"
|'''sin-'''  
|'''makʃølna'''  
|"new"
"be great"
|-
|-
|'''befitra'''  
|'''dotrɛ'''
"tired"
|'''dom-'''  
|'''befitra'''  
|"old"
"be tired"
|-
|-
|'''suwani'''  
|'''mahhalis'''
"good"
|'''mah-'''  
|'''suwanja'''  
|"ancient"
"be good"
|-
|-
|'''daggus'''  
|'''makʃølen''', '''makʃølin'''
"bad"
|'''møkʃ-'''  
|'''daggusa'''  
|"important", "great"
"be bad"
|-
|-
|'''sulin'''  
|'''tossan'''
"new"
|'''tos-''', '''tan-'''  
|'''sulna'''  
|"beautiful"
"be new"
|-
|-
|'''dotrɛ'''  
|'''abliki'''
"old"
|'''killi-'''  
|'''dɛtra'''  
|"false", "fake"
"be old"
|}
 
 
Examples:
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|'''tossan'''
!With Adjective
"beautiful"
!With Prefix
|'''tossana''', '''tosna'''
!Meaning
"be beautiful"
|-
|-
|'''trapter'''  
|'''nahar piktaraʃ'''
"unique"
|'''nahpiktaraʃ'''  
|'''traptra'''  
|"a big problem"
"be unique"
|-
|-
|'''ʃɔtma'''  
|'''kitr piktaraʃ'''
"sure", "certain"
|'''kippiktaraʃ'''  
|'''ʃɔtama'''  
|"a small problem"
"be sure", "be certain"
|-
|-
|'''kanikli'''  
|'''suwani astrønɛl'''
"appropriate"
|'''suwwastrønɛl'''  
|'''kankilja'''  
|"a good idea"
"be appropriate"
|-
|-
|'''tubbar'''  
|'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''
"white"
|'''daggastrønɛl'''
|'''tubabra'''  
|"a bad idea"
"be white"
|-
|-
|'''kindis'''  
|'''sulin dasutr'''
"clear"
|'''sindasutr'''  
|'''kinitsa'''  
|"a new document"
"be clear"
|}
 
Another suffix is '''-(a)st(a)-''', meaning "to get" or "to become". The first optional '''-a-''' appears when necessary, to avoid unsuitable consonant clusters, while the final '''-a''' is only used in the infinitive form of the verb - i.e., without any suffixes. There are some irregular formations.
 
Ex.:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!Adjective
|'''dotrɛ hedan'''
!Verb
|'''domhedan'''
|"an old house"
|-
|-
|'''makʃølen'''  
|'''mahhalis kataʃtevan'''
"great"
|'''mahkataʃtevan'''  
|'''makʃølnasta'''  
|"an ancient civilization"
"become great"
|-
|-
|'''befitra'''  
|'''makʃølen dasutr''', '''makʃølin dasutr'''
"tired"
|'''møkʃdasutr'''  
|'''befitrasta'''  
|"an important document"
"get tired"
|-
|-
|'''nahar'''  
|'''makʃølen astrønɛl''', '''makʃølin astrønɛl'''
"big, large"
|'''møkʃastrønɛl'''  
|'''nahasta''', '''narasta'''  
|"a great idea"
"get big", "increase"
|-
|-
|'''kitr'''  
|'''tossan dummal'''
"little, small"
|'''tosdummal''', '''tandummal'''  
|'''kitrasta''', '''katrasta''', '''kirrasta'''  
|"a beautiful song"
"get smaller", "decrease"
|-
|-
|'''suwani'''  
|'''abliki bɔrakʃ'''
"good"
|'''killibɔrakʃ'''  
|'''suwanasta'''
|"false news", "fake news"
"become good"
|}
 
=== Predicative Adjectives ===


'''suwasta''', '''sawasta''', '''suwnasta'''
An adjective used in predicative function is invariable. Only the full forms of adjectives can be used predicatively.


"get better", "improve"
Usually a linking verb is employed. Ex.:
{| class="wikitable
|-
|'''Tru astrønɛl laje makʃølen.''' || The idea is great.
|-
|-
|'''daggus''' , '''daggussa'''
|'''Tru grats alanje befitra.''' || The boy is tired.
"bad"
|}
|'''daggusasta''', '''daggussasta'''
"become bad"


'''daggasta'''


"get worse"
There is also the possibility of turning adjectives into verbs. Ex.:
{| class="wikitable
|-
|'''Tru astrønɛl makʃølnaje.''' || The idea is great.
|-
|-
|'''dotrɛ'''
|'''Tru grats abefitranje.''' || The boy is tired.
"old"
|'''dotrɛsta'''
"become old"
 
'''dotrasta'''
 
"get older", "to age"
|-
|'''tossan'''
"beautiful
|'''tossanasta'''
"become beautiful"
 
'''tossasta''', '''tosnasta'''
 
"get prettier", "beautify"
|-
|'''abliki'''
"false", "fake"
|'''ablikasta'''
"become invalid"
|}
|}


A few other suffixes perform similar tasks, with more specific meanings. These are usually quite regular. The most productive among these suffixes are:


The most common way to make an adjective into a verb, implying the idea of "be", is the  suffix '''-a-''', which may cause some change in the last syllable of the original adjective. If the adjective already ends in '''-a''', there is no change. Ex.:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|'''-we'''
!Adjective
|"to remain", "still be"
!Verb
|-
|-
|'''-kas'''
|'''makʃølen'''
|"to seem", "to appear"
"great"
|'''makʃølna'''
"be great"
|-
|'''befitra'''  
"tired"
|'''befitra'''
"be tired"
|-
|-
|'''-ʃyn'''
|'''suwani'''  
|"to pretend to be"
"good"
|'''suwanja'''
"be good"
|-
|-
|'''-dobb(a)-'''
|'''daggus'''  
|"to cease to be", "to be no longer"
"bad"
|'''daggusa'''
"be bad"
|-
|-
|'''-guj'''
|'''sulin'''  
|"to be a little bit"
"new"
|}
|'''sulna'''  
 
"be new"
Ex.:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Adjective
!Verb
|-
|'''nøssar'''  
"calm"
|'''nøssarwe''' "remain calm", "keep calm"
 
'''nøssarkaʃ''' "seem/appear calm"
 
'''nøssarʃyn''' "pretend to be calm"
 
'''nøssardobba''' "cease to be calm"
 
'''nøssarguj''' "be a little calm"
|-
|-
|'''dotrɛ'''  
|'''dotrɛ'''  
"old"
"old"
|'''dotrɛkaʃ''' "seem/appear old"
|'''dɛtra'''  
 
"be old"
'''dotrɛguj''' "be a little old"
|-
|}
|'''tossan'''  
 
"beautiful"
== Numerals ==
|'''tossana''', '''tosna'''
The basic cardinal numbers are:
"be beautiful"
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|0 || '''kal''', '''kahtral'''
|'''trapter'''  
"unique"
|'''traptra'''  
"be unique"
|-
|-
|1 || '''mihen'''
|'''ʃɔtma'''
"sure", "certain"
|'''ʃɔtama'''  
"be sure", "be certain"
|-
|-
|2 || '''dahas'''
|'''kanikli'''
"appropriate"
|'''kankilja'''  
"be appropriate"
|-
|-
|3 || '''travis'''
|'''tubbar'''
"white"
|'''tubabra'''  
"be white"
|-
|-
|4 || '''gazen'''
|'''kindis'''
"clear"
|'''kinitsa'''
"be clear"
|}
 
Another suffix is '''-(a)st(a)-''', meaning "to get" or "to become". The first optional '''-a-''' appears when necessary, to avoid unsuitable consonant clusters, while the final '''-a''' is only used in the infinitive form of the verb - i.e., without any suffixes. There are some irregular formations.
 
Ex.:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|5 || '''kɛʃav'''
!Adjective
!Verb
|-
|-
|6 || '''pinjan'''
|'''makʃølen'''
"great"
|'''makʃølnasta'''  
"become great"
|-
|-
|7 || '''høtak'''
|'''befitra'''  
|-
"tired"
|8 || '''magɛl'''
|'''befitrasta'''  
"get tired"
|-
|-
|9 || '''donwaʒ'''
|'''nahar'''
"big, large"
|'''nahasta''', '''narasta'''  
"get big", "increase"
|-
|-
|10 || '''zɛhɛv'''
|'''kitr'''
"little, small"
|'''kitrasta''', '''katrasta''', '''kirrasta'''  
"get smaller", "decrease"
|-
|-
|11 || '''zɛhɛv mihen''', '''zɛvhen'''
|'''suwani'''
"good"
|'''suwanasta'''
"become good"
 
'''suwasta''', '''sawasta''', '''suwnasta'''  
 
"get better", "improve"
|-
|-
|12 || '''zɛhɛv dahas''', '''zɛvdas'''
|'''daggus''' , '''daggussa'''
|-
"bad"
|13 || '''zɛhɛv travis''', '''zɛvtras'''
|'''daggusasta''', '''daggussasta'''
"become bad"
 
'''daggasta'''
 
"get worse"
|-
|-
|14 || '''zɛhɛv gazen''', '''zɛvzen'''
|'''dotrɛ'''
"old"
|'''dotrɛsta'''
"become old"
 
'''dotrasta'''
 
"get older", "to age"
|-
|-
|15 || '''zɛhɛv kɛʃav''', '''zɛvkʃav'''
|'''tossan'''
"beautiful
|'''tossanasta'''
"become beautiful"
 
'''tossasta''', '''tosnasta'''
 
"get prettier", "beautify"
|-
|-
|16 || '''zɛhɛv pinjan''', '''zɛvpan'''
|'''abliki'''
"false", "fake"
|'''ablikasta'''
"become invalid"
|}
 
A few other suffixes perform similar tasks, with more specific meanings. These are usually quite regular. The most productive among these suffixes are:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|17 || '''zɛhɛv høtak''','''zɛvhøk'''
|'''-we'''
|"to remain", "still be"
|-
|-
|18 || '''zɛhɛv magɛl''', '''zɛvmal'''
|'''-kas'''
|"to seem", "to appear"
|-
|-
|19 || '''zɛhɛv donwaʒ''', '''zɛvdaʒ'''
|'''-ʃyn'''
|"to pretend to be"
|-
|-
|20 || '''dahassɛv'''
|'''-dobb(a)-'''
|"to cease to be", "to be no longer"
|-
|-
|30 || '''travissɛv'''
|'''-guj'''
|"to be a little bit"
|}
 
Ex.:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|40 || '''gazennɛv'''
!Adjective
!Verb
|-
|-
|50 || '''kɛʃavvɛv'''
|'''nøssar'''  
|-
"calm"
|60 || '''pinjannɛv'''
|'''nøssarwe''' "remain calm", "keep calm"
|-
 
|70 || '''høtakkɛv'''
'''nøssarkaʃ''' "seem/appear calm"
|-
|80 || '''magɛllɛv'''
|-
|90 || '''donwaʒʒɛv'''
|-
|100 || '''lakin'''
|-
|1,000 || '''tatrimi'''
|-
|10,000 || '''zɛhɛv tatrimi'''
|}


Numbers are composed by joining the base units above, from bigger to lower. Ex.:
'''nøssarʃyn''' "pretend to be calm"


{| class="wikitable"
'''nøssardobba''' "cease to be calm"
 
'''nøssarguj''' "be a little calm"
|-
|-
|23 || '''dahassɛv travis'''
|'''dotrɛ'''
"old"
|'''dotrɛkaʃ''' "seem/appear old"
 
'''dotrɛguj''' "be a little old"
|}
 
== Numerals ==
The basic cardinal numbers are:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|45 || '''gazennɛv kɛʃav'''
|0 || '''kal''', '''kahtral'''
|-
|-
|67 || '''pinjannɛv høtak'''
|1 || '''mihen'''
|-
|-
|89 || '''magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''
|2 || '''dahas'''
|-
|-
|123 || '''lakin dahassɛv travis'''
|3 || '''travis'''
|-
|-
|456 || '''gazen lakin kɛʃavvɛv pinjan'''
|4 || '''gazen'''
|-
|-
|789 || '''høtak lakin magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''
|5 || '''kɛʃav'''
|-
|-
|1,234 || '''tatrimi dahas lakin travissɛv gazen'''
|6 || '''pinjan'''
|-
|-
|5,678 || '''kɛʃav tatrimi pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl'''
|7 || '''høtak'''
|-
|-
|12,345 || '''zɛvdas tatrimi travis lakin gazennɛv kɛʃav'''
|8 || '''magɛl'''
|-
|-
|678,910 || '''pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl tatrimi donwaʒ lakin zɛhɛv'''
|9 || '''donwaʒ'''
|}
 
 
Ordinal numbers are created with the suffix '''-iki'''. Ex.:
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|1st || '''miheniki'''
|10 || '''zɛhɛv'''
|-
|-
|2nd || '''dahasiki'''
|11 || '''zɛhɛv mihen''', '''zɛvhen'''
|-
|-
|3rd || '''travisiki'''
|12 || '''zɛhɛv dahas''',  '''zɛvdas'''
|-
|-
|4th || '''gazeniki'''
|13 || '''zɛhɛv travis''', '''zɛvtras'''
|-
|-
|5th || '''kɛʃaviki'''
|14 || '''zɛhɛv gazen''', '''zɛvzen'''
|-
|-
|6th || '''pinjaniki'''
|15 || '''zɛhɛv kɛʃav''', '''zɛvkʃav'''
|-
|-
|7th || '''høtakiki'''
|16 || '''zɛhɛv pinjan''', '''zɛvpan'''
|-
|-
|8th || '''magɛliki'''
|17 || '''zɛhɛv høtak''','''zɛvhøk'''
|-
|-
|9th || '''donwaʒiki'''
|18 || '''zɛhɛv magɛl''', '''zɛvmal'''
|-
|-
|10th || '''zɛhɛviki''', '''zɛhviki'''
|19 || '''zɛhɛv donwaʒ''', '''zɛvdaʒ'''
|-
|-
|11th || '''zɛvheniki'''
|20 || '''dahassɛv'''
|-
|-
|12th || '''zɛvdasiki'''
|30 || '''travissɛv'''
|-
|-
|13th || '''zɛvtrasiki'''
|40 || '''gazennɛv'''
|-
|-
|14th || '''zɛvzeniki'''
|50 || '''kɛʃavvɛv'''
|-
|-
|15th || '''zɛvkʃaviki'''
|60 || '''pinjannɛv'''
|-
|-
|16th || '''zɛvpaniki'''
|70 || '''høtakkɛv'''
|-
|-
|17th || '''zɛvhøkiki'''
|80 || '''magɛllɛv'''
|-
|-
|18th || '''zɛvmaliki'''
|90 || '''donwaʒʒɛv'''
|-
|-
|19th || '''zɛvdaʒiki'''
|100 || '''lakin'''
|-
|-
|20th || '''dahassɛviki'''
|1,000 || '''tatrimi'''
|-
|-
|30th || '''travissɛviki'''
|10,000 || '''zɛhɛv tatrimi'''
|-
|}
|40th || '''gazennɛviki'''
 
|-
Numbers are composed by joining the base units above, from bigger to lower. Ex.:
|50th || '''kɛʃavvɛviki'''
 
|-
{| class="wikitable"
|60th || '''pinjannɛviki'''
|-
|-
|23 || '''dahassɛv travis'''
|70th || '''høtakkɛviki'''
|-
|-
|45 || '''gazennɛv kɛʃav'''
|80th || '''magɛllɛviki'''
|-
|-
|67 || '''pinjannɛv høtak'''
|90th || '''donwaʒʒɛviki'''
|-
|-
|89 || '''magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''
|100th || '''lakiniki'''
|-
|-
|123 || '''lakin dahassɛv travis'''
|1,000th || '''tatrimiiki'''
|-
|}
|456 || '''gazen lakin kɛʃavvɛv pinjan'''
 
|-
== Verbs ==
|789 || '''høtak lakin magɛllɛv donwaʒ'''
 
|-
The personal endings for all verb forms are as follows:  
|1,234 || '''tatrimi dahas lakin travissɛv gazen'''
 
|-
* 1s: '''-us'''
|5,678 || '''kɛʃav tatrimi pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl'''
* 2s: '''-im'''
|-
* 3s: '''-je'''
|12,345 || '''zɛvdas tatrimi travis lakin gazennɛv kɛʃav'''
* 1p: '''-tron'''
|-
* 2p: '''-trib'''
|678,910 || '''pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl tatrimi donwaʒ lakin zɛhɛv'''
* 3p: '''-trɛw'''
|}
 
 
=== Generic (Present) ===
 
The generic present tense corresponds to the bare stem, to which the personal endings are added. It mostly indicates the verbal idea without a specific context, time or aspect, and usually corresponds to the simple present tense indicating something as permanent, that is always true, or that repeats indefinitely. Ex.:  
Ordinal numbers are created with the suffix '''-iki'''. Ex.:
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|1st || '''miheniki'''
|-
|2nd || '''dahasiki'''
|-
|3rd || '''travisiki'''
|-
|4th || '''gazeniki'''
|-
|5th || '''kɛʃaviki'''
|-
|6th || '''pinjaniki'''
|-
|7th || '''høtakiki'''
|-
|8th || '''magɛliki'''
|-
|9th || '''donwaʒiki'''
|-
|10th || '''zɛhɛviki''', '''zɛhviki'''
|-
|11th || '''zɛvheniki'''
|-
|12th || '''zɛvdasiki'''
|-
|13th || '''zɛvtrasiki'''
|-
|14th || '''zɛvzeniki'''
|-
|15th || '''zɛvkʃaviki'''
|-
|16th || '''zɛvpaniki'''
|-
|17th || '''zɛvhøkiki'''
|-
|18th || '''zɛvmaliki'''
|-
|19th || '''zɛvdaʒiki'''
|-
|20th || '''dahassɛviki'''
|-
|30th || '''travissɛviki'''
|-
|40th || '''gazennɛviki'''
|-
|50th || '''kɛʃavvɛviki'''
|-
|60th || '''pinjannɛviki'''
|-
|70th || '''høtakkɛviki'''
|-
|80th || '''magɛllɛviki'''
|-
|90th || '''donwaʒʒɛviki'''
|-
|100th || '''lakiniki'''
|-
|1,000th || '''tatrimiiki'''
|}
 
== Pronouns ==
 
=== Personal Pronouns ===
Personal Pronouns in Dahur indicate person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and number (singular, dual, plural).
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|rowspan="2"|1st Person
|'''dɛ''' "I" , "me"
|'''ʃes''' "we both"
|'''ʃɛn''' "we", "us"
|-
!Singular
!Dual
!Plural
|-
!Nominative
|'''dɛ'''
|'''ʃes'''
|'''ʃɛn'''
|-
!Accusative
|'''dɛa''', '''da'''
|'''ʃeas''', '''ʃas'''
|'''ʃan'''
|-
!Dative
|'''dɛw''', '''du'''
|'''ʃeus''', '''ʃews''', '''ʃus'''
|'''ʃɛun''', '''ʃɛwn''', '''ʃun'''
|-
!Genitive
|'''dɛk'''
|'''ʃesk'''
|'''ʃɛkɛn''', '''ʃkɛn'''
|-
!Locative
|'''dɛbb'''
|'''ʃeps'''
|'''ʃɛmb'''
|-
!Instrumental
|'''dɛm'''
|'''ʃems'''
|'''ʃɛom''', '''ʃom'''
|-
!Ablative
|'''dɛv'''
|'''ʃɛfs'''
|'''ʃɛɛv''', '''ʃɛv'''
|-
!Ergative
|'''dɛjøtr''', '''dɛtr'''
|'''ʃesøtr'''
|'''ʃɛtrøn''', '''ʃtrøn'''
|-
!Partitive
| -
|'''ʃets'''
|'''ʃɛnt'''
|}
 
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|rowspan="2"|2nd Person
|'''hej''' "you (sg.), thou"
|'''kwes''' "you both"
|'''kwɛn''' "you (pl.)"
|-
!Singular
!Dual
!Plural
|-
!Nominative
|'''hej'''
|'''kwes'''
|'''kwɛn'''
|-
!Accusative
|'''heja''', '''ja'''
|'''kweas''', '''kwas'''
|'''kwɛan''', '''kwan'''
|-
!Dative
|'''heju''', '''ju'''
|'''kweus'''
|'''kwɛun''', '''kun'''
|-
!Genitive
|'''heik''', '''hejik'''
|'''kwesk'''
|'''kwɛnek''', '''kwɛnk'''
|-
!Locative
|'''heibb''', '''hibb'''
|'''kweps'''
|'''kwɛmb'''
|-
!Instrumental
|'''heim''', '''him'''
|'''kwems'''
|'''kwɛom''', '''kwɛm''', '''kwom'''
|-
!Ablative
|'''hejɛv''', '''jɛv'''
|'''kwɛfs'''
|'''kwɛɛv''', '''kwɛv'''
|-
!Ergative
|'''hejøtr''', '''hjøtr'''
|'''kwesøtr'''
|'''kwɛtrøn'''
|-
!Vocative
|'''heje'''
|'''kwejes'''
|'''kwɛjɛn'''
|-
!Partitive
| -
|'''kwets'''
|'''kwɛnt'''
|}
 
 
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|rowspan="2"|3rd Person
|'''nar''' "he", "she", "it"
|'''ras''' "they both"
|'''ren''' "they", "them"
|-
!Singular
!Dual
!Plural
|-
!Nominative
|'''nar'''
|'''ras'''
|'''rɛn'''
|-
!Accusative
|'''nara''', '''ra'''
|'''ras'''
|'''rɛan''', '''ran'''
|-
!Dative
|'''naru''', '''ru'''
|'''raus''', '''raws''', '''rus'''
|'''rɛun''', '''rɛwn''', '''run'''
|-
!Genitive
|'''narɛk''', '''rɛk'''
|'''resk'''
|'''rɛkɛn''', '''ɛrken'''
|-
!Locative
|'''narebb''', '''rebb'''
|'''reps'''
|'''rɛmb'''
|-
!Instrumental
|'''narom''', '''rom'''
|'''rems'''
|'''rɛnom''', '''rom'''
|-
!Ablative
|'''narɛv''', '''rɛv'''
|'''rɛfs'''
|'''rɛɛv''', '''rɛv'''
|-
!Ergative
|'''narøtr''', '''røtr'''
|'''resøtr'''
|'''rɛtrøn''', '''ɛrtrøn'''
|-
!Partitive
| -
|'''rets'''
|'''rɛnt'''
|}
 
 
The '''genitive''' forms work as possessive pronouns. In that case, the definite article is optional. Ex.:
 
* '''tru dɛk astrønɛl''', '''dɛk astrønɛl''' "my idea"
* '''na heik kʃalima''', '''heik kʃalima''' "your hair (accus.)"
* '''trom narɛk kɛʃevom''', '''narɛk kɛʃevom''' "with his/her hammer (instr.)"
* '''tu dɛk menirun''', '''dɛk menirun''' "to my children (dat.)"
 
=== Demonstrative Pronouns ===
 
=== Interrogative Pronouns ===
 
=== Indefinite Pronouns ===
 
== Verbs ==
 
Verbs in Dahur have different stems indicating aspect. The conjugation uses different sets of endings to indicate tense or time.
 
The basic verb stems are:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Aspect
!Meaning
!Form
|-
|Generic
|''verbal idea without a specific context, time or aspect''
|the basic stem of the verb
|-
|Cursive (Progressive; Continuous)
|''action ongoing at the moment of reference
|prefix '''a-''' and suffix '''-(a)n-'''
|-
|Aorist
|''a complete or punctual action''
|suffix '''-(e)tt-'''
|-
|Perfect
|''the result of an action that happened before the reference time''
|suffix '''-(l)l(a)-'''
|-
|Unrealised (Future)
|''action as not realised in relation to the reference time''
|prefix '''u-''' and suffix '''-(u)ʃ-'''
|-
|Conditional
|''irrealis, usually an action depending on another''
|prefix '''i-''' and suffix '''-i-'''
|}
 
Stem formation is often irregular. 
 
Ex.:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|
!Generic
!Cursive
!Aorist
!Perfect
!Unrealised
!Conditional
|-
|'''kaʃmal''' "take"
|'''kaʃmal-'''
|'''akaʃmaln-'''
|'''kaʃmalett-'''
|'''kaʃmalla-'''
|'''ukaʃmaluʃ-'''
|'''ikaʃmali-'''
|-
|'''la''' "be"
|'''la-'''
|'''alan-'''
|'''latt-'''
|'''lalla-'''
|'''ulauʃ-'''
|'''ilai-'''
|-
|'''wennin''' "live"
|'''wennin-'''
|'''awann-'''
|'''wennett-'''
|'''wennilla-'''
|'''uwenninʃ-'''
|'''iwennini-'''
|-
|'''gadra''' "write"
|'''gadra-'''
|'''agandran-'''
|'''gadrett-'''
|'''gadralla-'''
|'''ugadruʃ-'''
|'''igadri-'''
|-
|'''tefʃiv''' "flee"
|'''tefʃiv-'''
|'''ateʃfan-'''
|'''tefʃivett-'''
|'''tefʃivla-'''
|'''utefʃivuʃ-'''
|'''itefʃivi-'''
|-
|'''maʃkintɾod''' "represent"
|'''maʃkintɾod-'''
|'''amaʃkintɾon-'''
|'''maʃkintɾott-'''
|'''maʃkintɾolla-'''
|'''umaʃkintɾotʃ-'''
|'''imaʃkintɾodi-'''
|-
|'''kajnaar''' "jump"
|'''kajnaar-'''
|'''akajnaan-'''
|'''kajnerett-'''
|'''kajnaalla-'''
|'''ukajnaaruʃ-'''
|'''ikajnaari-'''
|-
|'''taldesyys''' "take care of"
|'''taldesyys-'''
|'''ataldesyyn-'''
|'''taldesyyst-'''
|'''taldesyyll-'''
|'''utaldesyyʃ-'''
|'''italdesyysi-'''
|}
 
 
<!---
The personal endings are :
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|
!Present
!Past
!Future
|-
!1s
|'''-us'''
|'''-sa'''
|'''-os'''
|-
!2s
|'''-im'''
|'''-mis'''
|'''-ojm'''
|-
!3s
|'''-ej'''
|'''-jes'''
|'''-oj'''
|-
!1p
|'''-ɔn'''
|'''-sɔn'''
|'''-on'''
|-
!2p
|'''-ib'''
|'''-ips'''
|'''-ojb'''
|-
!3p
|'''-ɛw'''
|'''-sɛw'''
|'''-wo'''
|}
 
 
The following combinations of stem + ending set occur:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|
|Present
|Past
|Future
|-
|Generic
!Simple
Present
!Habitual
Past ("used to")
!Generic
Future
|-
|Cursive
!Present
Continuous
!Past
Continuous
!Future
Progressive
|-
|Aorist
|
!Simple
Past (Aorist)
!Definite Future
(Specific, Punctual)
|-
|Perfect
!Past
Perfect
!Present
Perfect
!Future
Perfect
|-
|Unrealised
!Unrealised
Past ("would")
!Near
Future
!Future
(Remote)
|-
|Conditional
!Conditional
Past
!Conditional
Present
|
|}
 
 
The following personal endings for all verb forms are as follows:  
 
* 1s: '''-us'''
* 2s: '''-im'''
* 3s: '''-ej'''
* 1p: '''-ɔn'''
* 2p: '''-ib'''
* 3p: '''-ɛw'''
 
=== Generic (Present) ===
The generic present tense corresponds to the bare stem, to which the personal endings are added. It mostly indicates the verbal idea without a specific context, time or aspect, and usually corresponds to the simple present tense indicating something as permanent, that is always true, or that repeats indefinitely. Ex.:  


'''kaʃmal''' "take"
'''kaʃmal''' "take"
Line 1,547: Line 2,235:
* 2p: '''iwenninitrib''' "you live"
* 2p: '''iwenninitrib''' "you live"
* 3p: '''iwenninitrɛw''' "they live"
* 3p: '''iwenninitrɛw''' "they live"
-->

Latest revision as of 00:58, 16 July 2026

Phonology

Vowels

Dahur vowels are usually short. Double vowels (ex.: aa, ee &c.) may happen, but they are considered as simple vowel sequences.

The following vowels qualities are distinguished:

a e ɛ i o ɔ ø œ u y

The diagram below shows the 10 vowels of Dahur.

In practice, the vowel /a/ may actually vary between /a/, /ä/ and /ɑ/.

Merging of /ø/ and /œ/ is fairly common, especially in more informal contexts, as these two vowels mostly don't occur as minimal pair (except in a couple cases).

Consonants

Dahur consonants are as follows:

Bilabial Labiodental Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m n
Plosive p b t d k g
Sibilant fricative s z ʃ ʒ
Non-sibilant fricative f v h
Approximant j
Tap/Flap/Trill ɾ r
Lateral Approx. l

The rhotic consonant (r) is in free variation and may be realised either as a tap, a flap or a trill. The trill pronunciation (/r/) is more common at the beginning of a syllable, and even more so at the beginning of a word. The tap/flap pronunciation (/ɾ/) is more common in consonant clusters, especially after a plosive.

In Dahur phonology, the combinations tr and kʃ count as single, independent consonants.

Phonotactics

A syllable in Dahur must contain one vowel, which may be preceded and/or followed by any number of consonants. In practice, consonant clusters don't usually go beyond four consonants. For that account, kʃ and tɾ are always considered as single consonants.

All consonant sequences are possible. However, in practice, some consonant combinations (ex. -hm-, -tɾkʃ- &c.) are rare.

Some studies consider the existence of a glottal stop when a proper consonant is absent. This view is reflected in the writing, which has a special sign for the glottal stop / lack of a consonant. The last consonant of a syllable can be doubled.

Examples of valid syllables:

a tɛ en wi koj gjɔ pɾujn kʃtɾa fʃtlœmbz

Stress

In the standard pronunciation, words are stressed on the next-to-last syllable. However, if the last syllable contains the consonant /tɾ/, it will be stressed.

Ex.:

kanar

/ˈka.nar/

ostrøndɛl

/os.ˈtɾøn.dɛl/

tefʃiv

/ˈtef.ʃiv/

dasutɾ

/daˈsutɾ/

maʃkintɾod

/maʃ.kinˈtɾod/

Doubled vowels in the last syllable may sound as a long, stressed vowel; however, they are actually two separate vowels, each one in a different syllable, with stress falling on the first one (or on the last, in case that syllable contains the consonant tr). It is not uncommon to hear an epenthetic h, j or w between the two vowels.

Ex.:


kajnaar

/kaj.ˈna.ar/,
/kaj.ˈna.har/

pakisaatr

/pa.ki.sa.ˈatr/,
/pa.ki.sa.ˈhatr/

tøndelliin

/tøn.del.ˈli.in/,
/tøn.del.ˈli.jin/,
/tøn.del.ˈli.hin/

taldesyys

/tal.de.ˈsy.ys/,
/tal.de.ˈsy.hys/

Writing

Dahur script consists in an alphasyllabary consisting in separate letters indicating consonants, a combination of separate letters and diacritics to indicate vowels, as well as certain special letters for individual syllables.

Morphology

Dahur is a highly flexional language, with a strong presence of irregular forms.

Nouns inflect for number, which is basically singular and plural, but there are also occurrences of dual (for things normally occurring in pairs) and singulative (for individual items of things usually found collectively).

Nouns also inflect for case, usually: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, locative, instrumental, ergative and ablative. Instances of partitive and vocative are also found. The case called ergative is used basically for the agent of the passive voice.

Adjectives show no agreement to nouns, and inflect for degree (comparatives of superiority, equality, inferiority; relative and absolute superlative).


Nouns

Class

Dahurian nouns are divided in five classes, which can be compared to Latin or Greek declensions, as they consist in different inflection patterns, but may also be seen as a form of gender, as class is usually (but not always necessarily) related to the meaning of a noun.


Class 1 Living beings
Class 2 General objects
Class 3 Natural elements; insects
Class 4 Parts of human body; clothing
Class 5 Abstract nouns; traditional imaginary beings


There are no morphological indications related to noun classes in the nominative singular. The differences appear along the inflection of nouns.


Number

Nouns in Dahur have a singular and a plural. The plural ending varies according to noun class and to case. There is also a dual number, which is valid only for nouns normally occurring in pairs. Mass or collective nouns have a singulative inflection, but this is not very systematically indicated.


So, for example:


Class Singular Plural Dual Singulative
class 1 grats

"boy"

gratsen

"boys"

- -
class 2 kɛʃev

"hammer"

kɛʃevlin

"hammers"

kɛʃevs

"pair of hammers" (traditionally used by blacksmiths)

-
class 3 halajn

"water"

halejnn

"waters" (i.e. in a flood)

halajns

"The Two Waters" (the river Okanuma and the lake Kassanjas)

halajny

"a drop of water"

class 4 kanar

"eye"

kanarni

"many eyes" (mostly figuratively)

kanaris

"(two/both) eyes"

-
class 4 kʃalim

"hair"

kʃalimni

"(types of) hair"

- kʃalimy

"a (single) hair"

class 5 astrønɛl

"idea"

astrønɛljan

"ideas"

astrønɛls

"a couple ideas"

-


The plural in classes 1, 2 and 5 is usually regular, obtained with the respective suffixes (-en, -lin, -jan).

Ex.:

Class Singular Plural
class 1 katlaj

"girlfriend"

katlajen
dukʃatr

"boss"

dukʃatren
egastɛv

"farmer"

egastɛven
class 2 takoj

"pin"

takojlin
uhpsan

"paper"

uhpsanlin
dasutr

"document, file"

dasutrlin
class 5 pɛktegal

"angel"

pɛktegaljan
ostrøndɛl

"interruption"

ostrøndɛljan
piktaraʃ

"problem"

piktaraʃjan


In classes 3 and 4, besides the suffixes (-n, -ni), most nouns suffer some sort of mutation, usually affecting only one vowel but non uncommonly consisting of more significative changes.


Ex.:

Class Singular Plural
class 3 pakpaki

"louse"

pakpɛkin
pahalis

"leaf"

pahaljen
tʃeptal

"cloud"

tʃapatlin, tʃaptlin
class 4 kraus

"ear"

krojsni
ɛmblew

"hat"

ɛmbalni
krikter

"helmet"

kruktni

Case

Dahur nouns inflect for the following cases:

  • nominative (subject, predicative)
  • accusative (direct object, motion towards)
  • dative (indirect object)
  • genitive (possession, partitive, origin)
  • locative (location, placement)
  • instrumental (instrument, means, company)
  • ablative (adverbial)
  • ergative (agent of the passive voice)

All cases except the nominative and the ergative can be used with prepositions.

Certain nouns, mostly nouns indicating human beings, also show a vocative form, mostly formed with the ending -e, but usually irregular.

Certain nouns, for example nouns indicating mass or food, show a partitive case, usually formed with the ending -(i)t.


Inflection

Noun declension in Dahur is quite regular, in terms of case and the less usual numbers, viz. the dual and the singulative.


Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5
Sing. Dual Pl. Sing. Dual Pl. Sing. Dual Pl. Sing. Dual Pl. Sing. Dual Pl.
Nominative - -s -en - -s -lin - -s -n - -is -ni - -s -jan
Accusative -a -as -an -a -as -lajn -a -as -an -a -jas -nja -a -as -jan
Dative -u -us -un -u -us -lun -u -us -wan -u -ujs -nu -u -us -ujn
Genitive -ak -ask -ken -ik -isk -link -aʃ -ʃas -ʃan -iʃ -siʃ -niʃ -ik -isk -jank
Locative -ebb -eps -emb -ebb -eps -limb -ebb -eps -emb -ebb -bis -nibb -ebb -eps -jamb
Instrumental -om -oms -nom -om -oms -lom -om -oms -nom -om -joms -njom -om -oms -njom
Ablative -ɛv -ɛfs -nɛv -ɛv -ɛfs -lɛnv, -lɛv -ɛv -ɛfs -nɛv -ɛv -jɛfs -njɛv -ɛv -ɛfs -njɛv
Ergative -øtr -søtr -trøn -øtr -søtr -løtr -øtr -søtr -trøn -øtr -sjøtr -trøjn -øtr -søtr -trøjn


When an ending starting with a vowel is applied, a final -i becomes -j-, and a final -u becomes -w-; otherwise, an -h- is added. Ex.:

  • dula "babysitter", dulahen "babysitters"
  • agdari "prisoner", agdarjen "prisoners"
  • pakpaki "louse", pakpakja "louse (accus.)", pakpakjaʃ "of a louse", pakpakjom "by a louse"



In the following tables, you have some examples of nouns of the various classes, fully inflected for number and case.

  • Class 1: grats "boy"
  • Class 2: kɛʃev "hammer"
  • Class 3: tʃeptal "cloud"
  • Class 4: kraus "ear"
  • Class 5: astrønɛl "idea"


Class 1: grats "boy"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative grats gratss gratsen
Accusative gratsa gratsas gratsan
Dative gratsu gratsus gratsun
Genitive gratsak gratsask gratsken
Locative gratsebb gratseps gratsemb
Instrumental gratsom gratsoms gratsnom
Ablative gratsɛv gratsɛfs gratsnɛv
Ergative gratsøtr gratssøtr gratsetrøn
Vocative gratse gratses gratsen


Class 2: kɛʃev "hammer"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative kɛʃev kɛʃevs kɛʃevlin
Accusative kɛʃeva kɛʃevas kɛʃevlajn
Dative kɛʃevu kɛʃevus kɛʃevlun
Genitive kɛʃevik kɛʃevisk kɛʃevlink
Locative kɛʃevebb kɛʃeveps kɛʃevlimb
Instrumental kɛʃevom kɛʃevoms kɛʃevlom
Ablative kɛʃevɛv kɛʃevɛfs kɛʃevlɛnv, kɛʃevlɛv
Ergative kɛʃevøtr kɛʃevsøtr kɛʃevløtr


Class 3: tʃeptal "cloud"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative tʃeptal tʃeptals tʃaptlin
Accusative tʃeptala tʃeptalas tʃaptlijan, tʃaptljan
Dative tʃeptalu tʃeptalus tʃaptliwan
Genitive tʃeptalaʃ tʃeptalʃas tʃaptliʃan
Locative tʃeptalebb tʃeptaleps tʃaptlijemb, tʃaptljemb
Instrumental tʃeptalom tʃeptaloms tʃaptlinom
Ablative tʃeptalɛv tʃeptalɛfs tʃaptlinɛv
Ergative tʃeptaløtr tʃeptalsøtr tʃaptlitrøn
Partitive tʃeptalt tʃeptalts tʃaptlint


Class 4: kraus "ear"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative kraus krausis krojsni
Accusative krausa krausjas krojsnja
Dative krausu krausujs krojsnu
Genitive krausiʃ kraussiʃ krojsniʃ
Locative krausebb krauseps krojsnibb
Instrumental krausom krausoms krojsnjom
Ablative krausɛv krausɛfs krojsnjɛv
Ergative krausøtr krausjøtr krojstrøjn


Class 5: astrønɛl "idea"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative astrønɛl astrønɛls astrønɛljan
Accusative astrønɛla astrønɛlas astrønɛljan
Dative astrønɛlu astrønɛlus astrønɛlujn
Genitive astrønɛlik astrønɛlisk astrønɛljank
Locative astrønɛlebb astrønɛleps astrønɛljamb
Instrumental astrønɛlom astrønɛloms astrønɛlnjom
Ablative astrønɛlɛv astrønɛlɛfs astrønɛlnjɛv
Ergative astrønɛløtr astrønɛlsøtr astrønɛltrøjn
Partitive astrønɛlt astrønɛlts astrønɛljant

Articles

Definite Article

The definite article inflects for case and number, and is quite irregular.

Singular Dual Plural Singulative
Nominative tru gas tann try
Accusative na ga ta ny
Dative kʃu gu tu kʃu
Genitive kis gak tak kis
Locative debb gebb tebb debb
Instrumental trom gom tom trom
Ablative dɛv gɛv tɛv dɛv
Ergative trø gøtr tøtr trø

Indefinite Article

Dahur has no proper indefinite article.

If it's really necessary to mark a noun phrase as indefinite, an indefinite pronoun may be used. The most common is lum (invariable), meaning "some", "a certain" &c.


Prepositions

Prepositions in Dahur require the noun in one of the following cases:

  • accusative
  • dative
  • genitive
  • ablative
  • instrumental
  • locative

The nominative and the ergative are never used with prepositions.

In the table below you have the most common Dahur prepositions:

Preposition Case Meaning
dun locative, accusative of movement inside
yin dative for, in behalf of
accusative towards
ari, ar genitive from, out of
yuʃ genitive, ablative because of
vøj locative through
syn locative; accusative of movement near
kʃe genitive since, ago
pɛn locative; accusative of movement besides, next to
lujg locative; accusative of movement in front of
mœh ablative without
sto locative; accusative of movement on, on top of
krɔj locative; accusative of movement under
tjɛs genitive before (time)
gwaj accusative after (time)
fyj ablative during
vlen instrumental despite
uhk genitive except
uzd dative instead of
blas locative; accusative of movement behind


Examples:

  • yin na hedana "towards the house"
  • dun na hedana "into the house"
  • ar kis hedanik "from the house", "out of the house"
  • syn debb hedanebb "near the house"
  • syn na hedana "going near of the house"
  • pɛn debb hedanebb "besides the house", "next to the house"
  • pɛn na hedana "going next to the house"
  • lujg debb hedanebb "in front to the house"
  • lujg na hedana "going to the front of the house"
  • mœh dɛv hedanɛv "without the house"
  • sto debb hedanebb "on top of the house"
  • sto na hedana "going onto (the top of) the house"
  • krɔj debb hedanebb "under the house"
  • uzd kʃu hedanu "instead of the house"
  • blas debb hedanebb "behind the house"
  • blas na hedana "going behind the house"


Adjectives

Attributive Adjectives

Attributive adjectives in Dahur are invariable and come before the noun. Ex.:

  • fɛren grats "a smart boy"
  • duʃ halajn "clean water"
  • selak kanaris "pretty eyes"

A few attributes may be expressed by affixes to the noun, instead of the separate adjective. The most common ones are:

Adjective Affix Meaning
nahar -os

(usually deleting the last vowel of the original noun)

"big", "large"
kitr -in-

(before the last vowel of the or. noun)

"small", "little"
suwani -(t)ta-

(before the second vowel of the or. noun)

"good"
daggus, daggussa -aar "bad"

Examples:


With Adjective With Affixed Form Meaning
nahar piktaraʃ piktarʃos "a big problem"
kitr piktaraʃ piktarinaʃ "a little problem"
suwani astrønɛl attastrønɛl "a good idea"
daggus astrønɛl, daggussa astrønɛl astrønɛlaar "a bad idea"


Certain adjectives have a special, shortened form, which is prefixed to nouns when used attributively. The most common ones are:


Adjective Affix Meaning
nahar nah- "big", "large"
kitr ki-

(doubles the initial consonant of the noun)

"small", "little"
suwani suw- (suww- before vowels) "good"
daggus, daggussa dag- (dagg- before vowels) "bad"
sulin sin- "new"
dotrɛ dom- "old"
mahhalis mah- "ancient"
makʃølen, makʃølin møkʃ- "important", "great"
tossan tos-, tan- "beautiful"
abliki killi- "false", "fake"


Examples:


With Adjective With Prefix Meaning
nahar piktaraʃ nahpiktaraʃ "a big problem"
kitr piktaraʃ kippiktaraʃ "a small problem"
suwani astrønɛl suwwastrønɛl "a good idea"
daggus astrønɛl, daggussa astrønɛl daggastrønɛl "a bad idea"
sulin dasutr sindasutr "a new document"
dotrɛ hedan domhedan "an old house"
mahhalis kataʃtevan mahkataʃtevan "an ancient civilization"
makʃølen dasutr, makʃølin dasutr møkʃdasutr "an important document"
makʃølen astrønɛl, makʃølin astrønɛl møkʃastrønɛl "a great idea"
tossan dummal tosdummal, tandummal "a beautiful song"
abliki bɔrakʃ killibɔrakʃ "false news", "fake news"

Predicative Adjectives

An adjective used in predicative function is invariable. Only the full forms of adjectives can be used predicatively.

Usually a linking verb is employed. Ex.:

Tru astrønɛl laje makʃølen. The idea is great.
Tru grats alanje befitra. The boy is tired.


There is also the possibility of turning adjectives into verbs. Ex.:

Tru astrønɛl makʃølnaje. The idea is great.
Tru grats abefitranje. The boy is tired.


The most common way to make an adjective into a verb, implying the idea of "be", is the suffix -a-, which may cause some change in the last syllable of the original adjective. If the adjective already ends in -a, there is no change. Ex.:

Adjective Verb
makʃølen

"great"

makʃølna

"be great"

befitra

"tired"

befitra

"be tired"

suwani

"good"

suwanja

"be good"

daggus

"bad"

daggusa

"be bad"

sulin

"new"

sulna

"be new"

dotrɛ

"old"

dɛtra

"be old"

tossan

"beautiful"

tossana, tosna

"be beautiful"

trapter

"unique"

traptra

"be unique"

ʃɔtma

"sure", "certain"

ʃɔtama

"be sure", "be certain"

kanikli

"appropriate"

kankilja

"be appropriate"

tubbar

"white"

tubabra

"be white"

kindis

"clear"

kinitsa

"be clear"

Another suffix is -(a)st(a)-, meaning "to get" or "to become". The first optional -a- appears when necessary, to avoid unsuitable consonant clusters, while the final -a is only used in the infinitive form of the verb - i.e., without any suffixes. There are some irregular formations.

Ex.:

Adjective Verb
makʃølen

"great"

makʃølnasta

"become great"

befitra

"tired"

befitrasta

"get tired"

nahar

"big, large"

nahasta, narasta

"get big", "increase"

kitr

"little, small"

kitrasta, katrasta, kirrasta

"get smaller", "decrease"

suwani

"good"

suwanasta

"become good"

suwasta, sawasta, suwnasta

"get better", "improve"

daggus , daggussa

"bad"

daggusasta, daggussasta

"become bad"

daggasta

"get worse"

dotrɛ

"old"

dotrɛsta

"become old"

dotrasta

"get older", "to age"

tossan

"beautiful

tossanasta

"become beautiful"

tossasta, tosnasta

"get prettier", "beautify"

abliki

"false", "fake"

ablikasta

"become invalid"

A few other suffixes perform similar tasks, with more specific meanings. These are usually quite regular. The most productive among these suffixes are:

-we "to remain", "still be"
-kas "to seem", "to appear"
-ʃyn "to pretend to be"
-dobb(a)- "to cease to be", "to be no longer"
-guj "to be a little bit"

Ex.:

Adjective Verb
nøssar

"calm"

nøssarwe "remain calm", "keep calm"

nøssarkaʃ "seem/appear calm"

nøssarʃyn "pretend to be calm"

nøssardobba "cease to be calm"

nøssarguj "be a little calm"

dotrɛ

"old"

dotrɛkaʃ "seem/appear old"

dotrɛguj "be a little old"

Numerals

The basic cardinal numbers are:

0 kal, kahtral
1 mihen
2 dahas
3 travis
4 gazen
5 kɛʃav
6 pinjan
7 høtak
8 magɛl
9 donwaʒ
10 zɛhɛv
11 zɛhɛv mihen, zɛvhen
12 zɛhɛv dahas, zɛvdas
13 zɛhɛv travis, zɛvtras
14 zɛhɛv gazen, zɛvzen
15 zɛhɛv kɛʃav, zɛvkʃav
16 zɛhɛv pinjan, zɛvpan
17 zɛhɛv høtak,zɛvhøk
18 zɛhɛv magɛl, zɛvmal
19 zɛhɛv donwaʒ, zɛvdaʒ
20 dahassɛv
30 travissɛv
40 gazennɛv
50 kɛʃavvɛv
60 pinjannɛv
70 høtakkɛv
80 magɛllɛv
90 donwaʒʒɛv
100 lakin
1,000 tatrimi
10,000 zɛhɛv tatrimi

Numbers are composed by joining the base units above, from bigger to lower. Ex.:

23 dahassɛv travis
45 gazennɛv kɛʃav
67 pinjannɛv høtak
89 magɛllɛv donwaʒ
123 lakin dahassɛv travis
456 gazen lakin kɛʃavvɛv pinjan
789 høtak lakin magɛllɛv donwaʒ
1,234 tatrimi dahas lakin travissɛv gazen
5,678 kɛʃav tatrimi pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl
12,345 zɛvdas tatrimi travis lakin gazennɛv kɛʃav
678,910 pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl tatrimi donwaʒ lakin zɛhɛv


Ordinal numbers are created with the suffix -iki. Ex.:


1st miheniki
2nd dahasiki
3rd travisiki
4th gazeniki
5th kɛʃaviki
6th pinjaniki
7th høtakiki
8th magɛliki
9th donwaʒiki
10th zɛhɛviki, zɛhviki
11th zɛvheniki
12th zɛvdasiki
13th zɛvtrasiki
14th zɛvzeniki
15th zɛvkʃaviki
16th zɛvpaniki
17th zɛvhøkiki
18th zɛvmaliki
19th zɛvdaʒiki
20th dahassɛviki
30th travissɛviki
40th gazennɛviki
50th kɛʃavvɛviki
60th pinjannɛviki
70th høtakkɛviki
80th magɛllɛviki
90th donwaʒʒɛviki
100th lakiniki
1,000th tatrimiiki

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Personal Pronouns in Dahur indicate person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and number (singular, dual, plural).


1st Person dɛ "I" , "me" ʃes "we both" ʃɛn "we", "us"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative dɛ ʃes ʃɛn
Accusative dɛa, da ʃeas, ʃas ʃan
Dative dɛw, du ʃeus, ʃews, ʃus ʃɛun, ʃɛwn, ʃun
Genitive dɛk ʃesk ʃɛkɛn, ʃkɛn
Locative dɛbb ʃeps ʃɛmb
Instrumental dɛm ʃems ʃɛom, ʃom
Ablative dɛv ʃɛfs ʃɛɛv, ʃɛv
Ergative dɛjøtr, dɛtr ʃesøtr ʃɛtrøn, ʃtrøn
Partitive - ʃets ʃɛnt


2nd Person hej "you (sg.), thou" kwes "you both" kwɛn "you (pl.)"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative hej kwes kwɛn
Accusative heja, ja kweas, kwas kwɛan, kwan
Dative heju, ju kweus kwɛun, kun
Genitive heik, hejik kwesk kwɛnek, kwɛnk
Locative heibb, hibb kweps kwɛmb
Instrumental heim, him kwems kwɛom, kwɛm, kwom
Ablative hejɛv, jɛv kwɛfs kwɛɛv, kwɛv
Ergative hejøtr, hjøtr kwesøtr kwɛtrøn
Vocative heje kwejes kwɛjɛn
Partitive - kwets kwɛnt



3rd Person nar "he", "she", "it" ras "they both" ren "they", "them"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative nar ras rɛn
Accusative nara, ra ras rɛan, ran
Dative naru, ru raus, raws, rus rɛun, rɛwn, run
Genitive narɛk, rɛk resk rɛkɛn, ɛrken
Locative narebb, rebb reps rɛmb
Instrumental narom, rom rems rɛnom, rom
Ablative narɛv, rɛv rɛfs rɛɛv, rɛv
Ergative narøtr, røtr resøtr rɛtrøn, ɛrtrøn
Partitive - rets rɛnt


The genitive forms work as possessive pronouns. In that case, the definite article is optional. Ex.:

  • tru dɛk astrønɛl, dɛk astrønɛl "my idea"
  • na heik kʃalima, heik kʃalima "your hair (accus.)"
  • trom narɛk kɛʃevom, narɛk kɛʃevom "with his/her hammer (instr.)"
  • tu dɛk menirun, dɛk menirun "to my children (dat.)"

Demonstrative Pronouns

Interrogative Pronouns

Indefinite Pronouns

Verbs

Verbs in Dahur have different stems indicating aspect. The conjugation uses different sets of endings to indicate tense or time.

The basic verb stems are:

Aspect Meaning Form
Generic verbal idea without a specific context, time or aspect the basic stem of the verb
Cursive (Progressive; Continuous) action ongoing at the moment of reference prefix a- and suffix -(a)n-
Aorist a complete or punctual action suffix -(e)tt-
Perfect the result of an action that happened before the reference time suffix -(l)l(a)-
Unrealised (Future) action as not realised in relation to the reference time prefix u- and suffix -(u)ʃ-
Conditional irrealis, usually an action depending on another prefix i- and suffix -i-

Stem formation is often irregular.

Ex.:

Generic Cursive Aorist Perfect Unrealised Conditional
kaʃmal "take" kaʃmal- akaʃmaln- kaʃmalett- kaʃmalla- ukaʃmaluʃ- ikaʃmali-
la "be" la- alan- latt- lalla- ulauʃ- ilai-
wennin "live" wennin- awann- wennett- wennilla- uwenninʃ- iwennini-
gadra "write" gadra- agandran- gadrett- gadralla- ugadruʃ- igadri-
tefʃiv "flee" tefʃiv- ateʃfan- tefʃivett- tefʃivla- utefʃivuʃ- itefʃivi-
maʃkintɾod "represent" maʃkintɾod- amaʃkintɾon- maʃkintɾott- maʃkintɾolla- umaʃkintɾotʃ- imaʃkintɾodi-
kajnaar "jump" kajnaar- akajnaan- kajnerett- kajnaalla- ukajnaaruʃ- ikajnaari-
taldesyys "take care of" taldesyys- ataldesyyn- taldesyyst- taldesyyll- utaldesyyʃ- italdesyysi-


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