Conlangs/Dahur: Difference between revisions

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==Vowels==
==Vowels==
Dahur vowels are usually short. Double vowels (ex.: aa, ee &c.) may happen, but they are considered as simple vowel sequences.
Dahur vowels are usually short. Double vowels (ex.: aa, ee &c.) may happen, but they are considered as simple vowel sequences.
The following vowels qualities are distinguished:
'''a''' '''e''' '''ɛ''' '''i''' '''o''' '''ɔ''' '''ø''' '''œ''' '''u''' '''y'''


The diagram below shows the 10 vowels of Dahur.
The diagram below shows the 10 vowels of Dahur.
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Merging of /ø/ and /œ/ is fairly common, especially in more informal contexts, as these two vowels mostly don't occur as minimal pair (except in a couple cases).
Merging of /ø/ and /œ/ is fairly common, especially in more informal contexts, as these two vowels mostly don't occur as minimal pair (except in a couple cases).


==Consonants==
==Consonants==
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|-
|-
!Nasal
!Nasal
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /m/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''m'''
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /n/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''n'''
|
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|-
|-
!Plosive
!Plosive
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /p/ /b/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''p''' '''b'''
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /t/ /d/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''t''' '''d'''
|
|
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /k/ /g/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''k''' '''g'''
|
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|-
|-
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|
|
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /s/ /z/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''s''' '''z'''
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /ʃ/ /ʒ/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''ʃ''' '''ʒ'''
|
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|
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!Non-sibilant fricative
!Non-sibilant fricative
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /f/ /v/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''f''' '''v'''
|
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|
|
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /h/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''h'''
|-
|-
!Approximant
!Approximant
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|
|
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /j/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''j'''
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|
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|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|/ɾ/ /r/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''ɾ''' '''r'''
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|
|
|
|
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"| /l/
|style="text-align:center;font-family:mono"|'''l'''
|
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|
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|}
|}


The rhotic consonant ("r") is in free variation and may be realised either as a tap, a flap or a trill. The trill pronunciation (/r/) is more common at the beginning of a syllable, and even more so at the beginning of a word. The tap/flap pronunciation (/ɾ/) is more common in consonant clusters, especially after a plosive.
The rhotic consonant ('''r''') is in free variation and may be realised either as a tap, a flap or a trill. The trill pronunciation (/r/) is more common at the beginning of a syllable, and even more so at the beginning of a word. The tap/flap pronunciation (/ɾ/) is more common in consonant clusters, especially after a plosive.  
 
In Dahur phonology, the combinations /tɾ/ and /kʃ/ count as single, independent consonants.  


In Dahur phonology, the combinations '''tr''' and '''kʃ''' count as single, independent consonants.


==Phonotactics==
==Phonotactics==
A syllable in Dahur must contain one vowel, which may be preceded and/or followed by any number of consonants. In practice, consonant clusters don't usually go beyond four consonants. For that account, /kʃ/ and /tɾ/ are always considered as single consonants.  
A syllable in Dahur must contain one vowel, which may be preceded and/or followed by any number of consonants. In practice, consonant clusters don't usually go beyond four consonants. For that account, '''kʃ''' and '''tɾ''' are always considered as single consonants.  


All consonant sequences are possible. However, in practice, some consonant combinations (ex. -hm-, -tɾkʃ- &c.) are rare.
All consonant sequences are possible. However, in practice, some consonant combinations (ex. '''-hm-''', '''-tɾkʃ-''' &c.) are rare.


Some studies consider the existence of a glottal stop when a proper consonant is absent. This view is reflected in the writing, which has a special sign for the glottal stop / lack of a consonant. The last consonant of a syllable can be doubled.  
Some studies consider the existence of a glottal stop when a proper consonant is absent. This view is reflected in the writing, which has a special sign for the glottal stop / lack of a consonant. The last consonant of a syllable can be doubled.  
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{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
| '''kanar'''  
| '''<u>ka</u>nar'''  
<tt>/ˈka.nar/</tt>
<tt>/ˈka.nar/</tt>
| '''ostrøndɛl'''  
| '''os<u>trøn</u>dɛl'''  
<tt>/os.ˈtɾøn.dɛl/</tt>
<tt>/os.ˈtɾøn.dɛl/</tt>
| '''tefʃiv'''  
| '''<u>tef</u>ʃiv'''  
<tt>/ˈtef.ʃiv/</tt>
<tt>/ˈtef.ʃiv/</tt>
| '''dasutɾ'''  
| '''da<u>sutɾ</u>'''  
<tt>/daˈsutɾ/</tt>
<tt>/daˈsutɾ/</tt>
| '''maʃkintɾod'''  
| '''maʃkin<u>tɾod</u>'''  
<tt>/maʃ.kinˈtɾod/</tt>
<tt>/maʃ.kinˈtɾod/</tt>
|}
Doubled vowels in the last syllable may sound as a long, stressed vowel; however, they are actually two separate vowels, each one in a different syllable, with stress falling on the first one (or on the last, in case that syllable contains the consonant '''tr'''). It is not uncommon to hear an epenthetic '''h''', '''j''' or '''w''' between the two vowels.
Ex.:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| '''kaj<u>na</u>ar'''
<tt>/kaj.ˈna.ar/</tt>, <br/>
<tt>/kaj.ˈna.har/</tt> <br/>
| '''pakisa<u>atr</u>'''
<tt>/pa.ki.sa.ˈatr/</tt>,  <br/>
<tt>/pa.ki.sa.ˈhatr/</tt> <br/>
| '''tøndel<u>li</u>in'''
<tt>/tøn.del.ˈli.in/</tt>,  <br/>
<tt>/tøn.del.ˈli.jin/</tt>,  <br/>
<tt>/tøn.del.ˈli.hin/</tt>
| '''talde<u>sy</u>ys'''
<tt>/tal.de.ˈsy.ys/</tt>, <br/>
<tt>/tal.de.ˈsy.hys/</tt> <br/>
|}
|}


=Writing=
=Writing=


[[Dahur script]] consists in an alphasyllabary consisting in combinations of two consonants to which modifiers are added to indicate vowels.
[[Dahur script]] consists in an alphasyllabary consisting in separate letters indicating consonants, a combination of separate letters and diacritics to indicate vowels, as well as certain special letters for individual syllables.


=Morphology=
=Morphology=
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=== Number ===
=== Number ===
Nouns in Dahur have a singular and a plural. The plural ending varies according to noun class and to case. There is also a dual number, which is valid only for nouns normally occurring in pairs. Mass or collective nouns have a singulative inflection.
Nouns in Dahur have a singular and a plural. The plural ending varies according to noun class and to case. There is also a dual number, which is valid only for nouns normally occurring in pairs. Mass or collective nouns have a singulative inflection, but this is not very systematically indicated.




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|-
|-
|}
|}
=== Case ===
Dahur nouns inflect for the following cases:
* '''nominative''' (subject, predicative)
* '''accusative''' (direct object, motion towards)
* '''dative''' (indirect object)
* '''genitive''' (possession, partitive, origin)
* '''locative''' (location, placement)
* '''instrumental''' (instrument, means, company)
* '''ablative''' (adverbial)
* '''ergative''' (agent of the passive voice)
All cases except the nominative and the ergative can be used with prepositions.
Certain nouns, mostly nouns indicating human beings, also show a vocative form, mostly formed with the ending '''-e''', but usually irregular.
Certain nouns, for example nouns indicating mass or food, show a partitive case, usually formed with the ending '''-(i)t'''.


=== Inflection ===
=== Inflection ===
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|'''gratssøtr'''
|'''gratssøtr'''
|'''gratsetrøn'''
|'''gratsetrøn'''
|-
!Vocative
|'''gratse'''
|'''gratses'''
|'''gratsen'''
|}
|}


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|'''tʃeptalsøtr'''
|'''tʃeptalsøtr'''
|'''tʃaptlitrøn'''
|'''tʃaptlitrøn'''
|-
!Partitive
|'''tʃeptalt'''
|'''tʃeptalts'''
|'''tʃaptlint'''
|}
|}


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|'''astrønɛlsøtr'''
|'''astrønɛlsøtr'''
|'''astrønɛltrøjn'''
|'''astrønɛltrøjn'''
|-
!Partitive
|'''astrønɛlt'''
|'''astrønɛlts'''
|'''astrønɛljant'''
|}
|}


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|'''kʃu'''
|'''kʃu'''
|'''gu'''
|'''gu'''
|'''tu'''
|'''tun'''
|'''kʃu'''
|'''kʃu'''
|-
|-
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|}
|}


== Adjectives ==
=== Indefinite Article ===
 
Dahur has no proper indefinite article.


=== Attributive Adjectives ===
If it's really necessary to mark a noun phrase as indefinite, an indefinite pronoun may be used. The most common is '''lum''' (invariable), meaning "some", "a certain" &c.
Attributive adjectives in Dahur are invariable and come before the noun. Ex.:


* '''fɛren grats''' "a smart boy"
* '''duʃ halajn''' "clean water"
* '''selak kanaris''' "pretty eyes"


A few attributes may be expressed by affixes to the noun,  instead of the separate adjective. The most common ones are:  
 
== Prepositions ==
 
Prepositions in Dahur require the noun in one of the following cases:
 
* accusative
* dative
* genitive
* ablative
* instrumental
* locative
 
The nominative and the ergative are '''never''' used with prepositions.  
 
In the table below you have the most common Dahur prepositions:  


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!Adjective
!Preposition
!Affix
!Case
!Meaning
!Meaning
|-
|-
|'''nahar'''
|'''dun'''
|'''-os'''  
|''locative'', ''accusative of movement''
(usually deleting the last vowel of the original noun)
|inside
|"big", "large"
|-
|rowspan="2"|'''yin'''
|''dative''
|for, in behalf of
|-
|-
|'''kitr'''
|''accusative''
|'''-in-'''
|towards
(before the last vowel of the or. noun)
|"small", "little"
|-
|-
|'''suwani'''
|'''ari''', '''ar'''
|'''-(t)ta-'''  
|''genitive''
(before the second vowel of the or. noun)
|from, out of
|"good"
|-
|'''yuʃ'''
|''genitive'', ''ablative''
|because of
|-
|'''vøj'''
|''locative''
|through
|-
|'''syn'''
|''locative''; ''accusative of movement''
|near
|-
|'''kʃe'''
|''genitive''
|since, ago
|-
|'''pɛn'''
|''locative''; ''accusative of movement''
|besides, next to
|-
|'''lujg'''
|''locative''; ''accusative of movement''
|in front of
|-
|'''mœh'''
|''ablative''
|without
|-
|'''sto'''
|''locative''; ''accusative of movement''
|on, on top of
|-
|'''krɔj'''
|''locative''; ''accusative of movement''
|under
|-
|'''tjɛs'''
|''genitive''
|before (time)
|-
|'''gwaj'''
|''accusative''
|after (time)
|-
|'''fyj'''
|''ablative''
|during
|-
|'''vlen'''
|''instrumental''
|despite
|-
|'''uhk'''
|''genitive''
|except
|-
|'''uzd'''
|''dative''
|instead of
|-
|-
|'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''
|'''blas'''
|'''-aar'''
|''locative''; ''accusative of movement''
|"bad"
|behind
|}
|}


Examples:  
Examples:  
* '''yin na hedana''' "towards the house"
* '''dun na hedana''' "into the house"
* '''ar kis hedanik''' "from the house", "out of the house"
* '''syn debb hedanebb''' "near the house"
* '''syn na hedana''' "going near of the house"
* '''pɛn debb hedanebb''' "besides the house", "next to the house"
* '''pɛn na hedana''' "going next to the house"
* '''lujg debb hedanebb''' "in front to the house"
* '''lujg na hedana''' "going to the front of the house"
* '''mœh dɛv hedanɛv''' "without the house"
* '''sto debb hedanebb''' "on top of the house"
* '''sto na hedana''' "going onto (the top of) the house"
* '''krɔj debb hedanebb''' "under the house"
* '''uzd kʃu hedanu''' "instead of the house"
* '''blas debb hedanebb''' "behind the house"
* '''blas na hedana''' "going behind the house"




{| class="wikitable"
== Adjectives ==
|-
 
!With Adjective
=== Attributive Adjectives ===
!With Affixed Form
Attributive adjectives in Dahur are invariable and come before the noun. Ex.:
 
* '''fɛren grats''' "a smart boy"
* '''duʃ halajn''' "clean water"
* '''selak kanaris''' "pretty eyes"
 
A few attributes may be expressed by affixes to the noun,  instead of the separate adjective. The most common ones are:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Adjective
!Affix
!Meaning
!Meaning
|-
|-
|'''nahar piktaraʃ'''
|'''nahar'''
|'''piktarʃos'''  
|'''-os'''  
|"a big problem"
(usually deleting the last vowel of the original noun)
|"big", "large"
|-
|-
|'''kitr piktaraʃ'''
|'''kitr'''
|'''piktarinaʃ'''  
|'''-in-'''  
|"a little problem"
(before the last vowel of the or. noun)
|"small", "little"
|-
|-
|'''suwani astrønɛl'''
|'''suwani'''
|'''attastrønɛl'''  
|'''-(t)ta-'''  
|"a good idea"
(before the second vowel of the or. noun)
|"good"
|-
|-
|'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''
|'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''
|'''astrønɛlaar'''
|'''-aar'''
|"a bad idea"
|"bad"
|}
|}


 
Examples:  
Certain adjectives have a special, shortened form, which is prefixed to nouns when used attributively.
The most common ones are:  
 




{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!Adjective
!With Adjective
!Affix
!With Affixed Form
!Meaning
!Meaning
|-
|-
|'''nahar'''
|'''nahar piktaraʃ'''
|'''nah-'''  
|'''piktarʃos'''  
|"big", "large"
|"a big problem"
|-
|-
|'''kitr'''
|'''kitr piktaraʃ'''
|'''ki-'''  
|'''piktarinaʃ'''  
(doubles the initial consonant of the noun)
|"a little problem"
|"small", "little"
|-
|-
|'''suwani'''
|'''suwani astrønɛl'''
|'''suw-''' ('''suww-''' before vowels)
|'''attastrønɛl'''  
|"good"
|"a good idea"
|-
|-
|'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''
|'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''
|'''dag-''' ('''dagg-''' before vowels)
|'''astrønɛlaar'''
|"bad"
|"a bad idea"
|-
|}
|'''sulin'''
 
|'''sin-'''
|"new"
|-
|'''dotrɛ'''
|'''dom-'''
|"old"
|-
|'''mahhalis'''
|'''mah-'''
|"ancient"
|-
|'''makʃølen''', '''makʃølin'''
|'''møkʃ-'''
|"important", "great"
|-
|'''tossan'''
|'''tos-''', '''tan-'''
|"beautiful"
|-
|'''abliki'''
|'''killi-'''
|"false", "fake"
|}


Certain adjectives have a special, shortened form, which is prefixed to nouns when used attributively.
The most common ones are:


Examples:




{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!With Adjective
!Adjective
!With Prefix
!Affix
!Meaning
!Meaning
|-
|-
|'''nahar piktaraʃ'''
|'''nahar'''
|'''nahpiktaraʃ'''  
|'''nah-'''  
|"a big problem"
|"big", "large"
|-
|-
|'''kitr piktaraʃ'''
|'''kitr'''
|'''kippiktaraʃ'''  
|'''ki-'''  
|"a small problem"
(doubles the initial consonant of the noun)
|"small", "little"
|-
|-
|'''suwani astrønɛl'''
|'''suwani'''
|'''suwwastrønɛl'''  
|'''suw-''' ('''suww-''' before vowels)
|"a good idea"
|"good"
|-
|-
|'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''
|'''daggus''', '''daggussa'''
|'''daggastrønɛl'''
|'''dag-''' ('''dagg-''' before vowels)
|"a bad idea"
|"bad"
|-
|-
|'''sulin dasutr'''
|'''sulin'''
|'''sindasutr'''  
|'''sin-'''  
|"a new document"
|"new"
|-
|-
|'''dotrɛ hedan'''
|'''dotrɛ'''
|'''domhedan'''  
|'''dom-'''  
|"an old house"
|"old"
|-
|-
|'''mahhalis kataʃtevan'''
|'''mahhalis'''
|'''mahkataʃtevan'''  
|'''mah-'''  
|"an ancient civilization"
|"ancient"
|-
|-
|'''makʃølen dasutr''', '''makʃølin dasutr'''
|'''makʃølen''', '''makʃølin'''
|'''møkʃdasutr'''  
|'''møkʃ-'''  
|"an important document"
|"important", "great"
|-
|-
|'''makʃølen astrønɛl''', '''makʃølin astrønɛl'''
|'''tossan'''
|'''møkʃastrønɛl'''  
|'''tos-''', '''tan-'''  
|"a great idea"
|"beautiful"
|-
|-
|'''tossan dummal'''
|'''abliki'''
|'''tosdummal''', '''tandummal'''
|'''killi-'''  
|"a beautiful song"
|"false", "fake"
|-
|'''abliki bɔrakʃ'''
|'''killibɔrakʃ'''  
|"false news", "fake news"
|}
|}


=== Predicative Adjectives ===


An adjective used in predicative function is invariable. Only the full forms of adjectives can be used predicatively.
Examples:
 


Usually a linking verb is employed. Ex.:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable
|-
|-
|'''Tru astrønɛl laje makʃølen.''' || The idea is great.
!With Adjective
!With Prefix
!Meaning
|-
|-
|'''Tru grats alanje befitra.''' || The boy is tired.
|'''nahar piktaraʃ'''
|}
|'''nahpiktaraʃ'''
 
|"a big problem"
 
There is also the possibility of turning adjectives into verbs. Ex.:
{| class="wikitable
|-
|-
|'''Tru astrønɛl makʃølnaje.''' || The idea is great.
|'''kitr piktaraʃ'''
|'''kippiktaraʃ'''
|"a small problem"
|-
|-
|'''Tru grats abefitranje.''' || The boy is tired.
|'''suwani astrønɛl'''
|}
|'''suwwastrønɛl'''  
 
|"a good idea"
 
The most common way to make an adjective into a verb, implying the idea of "be", is the  suffix '''-a-''', which may cause some change in the last syllable of the original adjective. If the adjective already ends in '''-a''', there is no change. Ex.:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
!Adjective
|'''daggus astrønɛl''', '''daggussa astrønɛl'''
!Verb
|'''daggastrønɛl'''
|"a bad idea"
|-
|-
|'''makʃølen'''  
|'''sulin dasutr'''
"great"
|'''sindasutr'''  
|'''makʃølna'''  
|"a new document"
"be great"
|-
|-
|'''befitra'''  
|'''dotrɛ hedan'''
"tired"
|'''domhedan'''  
|'''befitra'''  
|"an old house"
"be tired"
|-
|-
|'''suwani'''  
|'''mahhalis kataʃtevan'''
"good"
|'''mahkataʃtevan'''  
|'''suwanja'''  
|"an ancient civilization"
"be good"
|-
|-
|'''daggus'''  
|'''makʃølen dasutr''', '''makʃølin dasutr'''
"bad"
|'''møkʃdasutr'''  
|'''daggusa'''  
|"an important document"
"be bad"
|-
|-
|'''sulin'''  
|'''makʃølen astrønɛl''', '''makʃølin astrønɛl'''
"new"
|'''møkʃastrønɛl'''  
|'''sulna'''  
|"a great idea"
"be new"
|-
|-
|'''dotrɛ'''  
|'''tossan dummal'''
"old"
|'''tosdummal''', '''tandummal'''  
|'''dɛtra'''  
|"a beautiful song"
"be old"
|-
|-
|'''tossan'''  
|'''abliki bɔrakʃ'''
"beautiful"
|'''killibɔrakʃ'''  
|'''tossana''', '''tosna'''
|"false news", "fake news"
"be beautiful"
|}
|-
 
|'''trapter'''
=== Predicative Adjectives ===
"unique"
 
|'''traptra'''
An adjective used in predicative function is invariable. Only the full forms of adjectives can be used predicatively.
"be unique"
 
Usually a linking verb is employed. Ex.:
{| class="wikitable
|-
|-
|'''ʃɔtma'''  
|'''Tru astrønɛl laje makʃølen.''' || The idea is great.
"sure", "certain"
|'''ʃɔtama'''
"be sure", "be certain"
|-
|-
|'''kanikli'''  
|'''Tru grats alanje befitra.''' || The boy is tired.
"appropriate"
|'''kankilja'''
"be appropriate"
|-
|'''tubbar'''
"white"
|'''tubabra'''
"be white"
|-
|'''kindis'''
"clear"
|'''kinitsa'''
"be clear"
|}
|}


Another suffix is '''-(a)st(a)-''', meaning "to get" or "to become". The first optional '''-a-''' appears when necessary, to avoid unsuitable consonant clusters, while the final '''-a''' is only used in the infinitive form of the verb - i.e., without any suffixes. There are some irregular formations.


Ex.:  
There is also the possibility of turning adjectives into verbs. Ex.:
{| class="wikitable
|-
|'''Tru astrønɛl makʃølnaje.''' || The idea is great.
|-
|'''Tru grats abefitranje.''' || The boy is tired.
|}
 
 
The most common way to make an adjective into a verb, implying the idea of "be", is the  suffix '''-a-''', which may cause some change in the last syllable of the original adjective. If the adjective already ends in '''-a''', there is no change. Ex.:  
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
Line 1,174: Line 1,293:
|'''makʃølen'''  
|'''makʃølen'''  
"great"
"great"
|'''makʃølnasta'''  
|'''makʃølna'''  
"become great"
"be great"
|-
|-
|'''befitra'''  
|'''befitra'''  
"tired"
"tired"
|'''befitrasta'''  
|'''befitra'''  
"get tired"
"be tired"
|-
|-
|'''nahar'''  
|'''suwani'''  
"big, large"
"good"
|'''nahasta''', '''narasta'''  
|'''suwanja'''  
"get big", "increase"
"be good"
|-
|-
|'''kitr'''  
|'''daggus'''  
"little, small"
"bad"
|'''kitrasta''', '''katrasta''', '''kirrasta'''  
|'''daggusa'''  
"get smaller", "decrease"
"be bad"
|-
|-
|'''suwani'''  
|'''sulin'''  
"good"
"new"
|'''suwanasta'''
|'''sulna'''  
"become good"
"be new"
 
'''suwasta''', '''sawasta''', '''suwnasta'''
 
"get better", "improve"
|-
|-
|'''daggus''' , '''daggussa'''
|'''dotrɛ'''  
"bad"
"old"
|'''daggusasta''', '''daggussasta'''  
|'''dɛtra'''  
"become bad"
"be old"
 
|-
'''daggasta'''
|'''tossan'''  
 
"beautiful"
"get worse"
|'''tossana''', '''tosna'''  
"be beautiful"
|-
|-
|'''dotrɛ'''
|'''trapter'''  
"old"
"unique"
|'''dotrɛsta'''
|'''traptra'''  
"become old"
"be unique"
 
'''dotrasta'''
 
"get older", "to age"
|-
|-
|'''tossan'''
|'''ʃɔtma'''  
"beautiful
"sure", "certain"
|'''tossanasta'''
|'''ʃɔtama'''  
"become beautiful"
"be sure", "be certain"
 
|-
'''tossasta''', '''tosnasta'''
|'''kanikli'''  
 
"appropriate"
"get prettier", "beautify"
|'''kankilja'''  
"be appropriate"
|-
|'''tubbar'''
"white"
|'''tubabra'''
"be white"
|-
|-
|'''abliki'''
|'''kindis'''  
"false", "fake"
"clear"
|'''ablikasta'''
|'''kinitsa'''  
"become invalid"
"be clear"
|}
|}


A few other suffixes perform similar tasks, with more specific meanings. These are usually quite regular. The most productive among these suffixes are:
Another suffix is '''-(a)st(a)-''', meaning "to get" or "to become". The first optional '''-a-''' appears when necessary, to avoid unsuitable consonant clusters, while the final '''-a''' is only used in the infinitive form of the verb - i.e., without any suffixes. There are some irregular formations.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''-we'''
|"to remain", "still be"
|-
|'''-kas'''
|"to seem", "to appear"
|-
|'''-ʃyn'''
|"to pretend to be"
|-
|'''-dobb(a)-'''
|"to cease to be", "to be no longer"
|-
|'''-guj'''
|"to be a little bit"
|}


Ex.:  
Ex.:  
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
Line 1,261: Line 1,360:
!Verb
!Verb
|-
|-
|'''nøssar'''  
|'''makʃølen'''  
"calm"
"great"
|'''nøssarwe''' "remain calm", "keep calm"
|'''makʃølnasta'''  
"become great"
|-
|'''befitra'''
"tired"
|'''befitrasta'''
"get tired"
|-
|'''nahar'''
"big, large"
|'''nahasta''', '''narasta'''
"get big", "increase"
|-
|'''kitr'''
"little, small"
|'''kitrasta''', '''katrasta''', '''kirrasta'''
"get smaller", "decrease"
|-
|'''suwani'''
"good"
|'''suwanasta'''
"become good"


'''nøssarkaʃ''' "seem/appear calm"
'''suwasta''', '''sawasta''', '''suwnasta'''  


'''nøssarʃyn''' "pretend to be calm"
"get better", "improve"
 
'''nøssardobba''' "cease to be calm"
 
'''nøssarguj''' "be a little calm"
|-
|-
|'''dotrɛ'''  
|'''daggus''' , '''daggussa'''
"bad"
|'''daggusasta''', '''daggussasta'''
"become bad"
 
'''daggasta'''
 
"get worse"
|-
|'''dotrɛ'''
"old"
"old"
|'''dotrɛkaʃ''' "seem/appear old"
|'''dotrɛsta'''
"become old"


'''dotrɛguj''' "be a little old"
'''dotrasta'''
|}


== Numerals ==
"get older", "to age"
The basic cardinal numbers are:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|0 || '''kal''', '''kahtral'''
|'''tossan'''
"beautiful
|'''tossanasta'''
"become beautiful"
 
'''tossasta''', '''tosnasta'''
 
"get prettier", "beautify"
|-
|-
|1 || '''mihen'''
|'''abliki'''
"false", "fake"
|'''ablikasta'''
"become invalid"
|}
 
A few other suffixes perform similar tasks, with more specific meanings. These are usually quite regular. The most productive among these suffixes are:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|2 || '''dahas'''
|'''-we'''
|"to remain", "still be"
|-
|-
|3 || '''travis'''
|'''-kas'''
|"to seem", "to appear"
|-
|-
|4 || '''gazen'''
|'''-ʃyn'''
|"to pretend to be"
|-
|-
|5 || '''kɛʃav'''
|'''-dobb(a)-'''
|"to cease to be", "to be no longer"
|-
|-
|6 || '''pinjan'''
|'''-guj'''
|"to be a little bit"
|}
 
Ex.:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|7 || '''høtak'''
!Adjective
!Verb
|-
|-
|8 || '''magɛl'''
|'''nøssar'''
"calm"
|'''nøssarwe''' "remain calm", "keep calm"
 
'''nøssarkaʃ''' "seem/appear calm"
 
'''nøssarʃyn''' "pretend to be calm"
 
'''nøssardobba''' "cease to be calm"
 
'''nøssarguj''' "be a little calm"
|-
|-
|9 || '''donwaʒ'''
|'''dotrɛ'''
|-
"old"
|10 || '''zɛhɛv'''
|'''dotrɛkaʃ''' "seem/appear old"
 
'''dotrɛguj''' "be a little old"
|}
 
== Numerals ==
The basic cardinal numbers are:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
|11 || '''zɛhɛv mihen''', '''zɛvhen'''
|0 || '''kal''', '''kahtral'''
|-
|-
|12 || '''zɛhɛv dahas''',  '''zɛvdas'''
|1 || '''mihen'''
|-
|-
|13 || '''zɛhɛv travis''', '''zɛvtras'''
|2 || '''dahas'''
|-
|-
|14 || '''zɛhɛv gazen''', '''zɛvzen'''
|3 || '''travis'''
|-
|-
|15 || '''zɛhɛv kɛʃav''', '''zɛvkʃav'''
|4 || '''gazen'''
|-
|-
|16 || '''zɛhɛv pinjan''', '''zɛvpan'''
|5 || '''kɛʃav'''
|-
|-
|17 || '''zɛhɛv høtak''','''zɛvhøk'''
|6 || '''pinjan'''
|-
|-
|18 || '''zɛhɛv magɛl''', '''zɛvmal'''
|7 || '''høtak'''
|-
|-
|19 || '''zɛhɛv donwaʒ''', '''zɛvdaʒ'''
|8 || '''magɛl'''
|-
|9 || '''donwaʒ'''
|-
|10 || '''zɛhɛv'''
|-
|11 || '''zɛhɛv mihen''', '''zɛvhen'''
|-
|12 || '''zɛhɛv dahas''',  '''zɛvdas'''
|-
|13 || '''zɛhɛv travis''', '''zɛvtras'''
|-
|14 || '''zɛhɛv gazen''', '''zɛvzen'''
|-
|15 || '''zɛhɛv kɛʃav''', '''zɛvkʃav'''
|-
|16 || '''zɛhɛv pinjan''', '''zɛvpan'''
|-
|17 || '''zɛhɛv høtak''','''zɛvhøk'''
|-
|18 || '''zɛhɛv magɛl''', '''zɛvmal'''
|-
|19 || '''zɛhɛv donwaʒ''', '''zɛvdaʒ'''
|-
|-
|20 || '''dahassɛv'''
|20 || '''dahassɛv'''
Line 1,440: Line 1,628:
|}
|}


== Prepositions ==
== Pronouns ==


Most prepositions in Dahur require the noun in one of the following cases:
=== Personal Pronouns ===
Personal Pronouns in Dahur indicate person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and number (singular, dual, plural).


* accusative
{| class="wikitable"
* dative
|-
* genitive
|rowspan="2"|1st Person
* ablative
|'''dɛ''' "I" , "me"
 
|'''ʃes''' "we both"
The instrumental and the locative cases are required by a few prepositions.
|'''ʃɛn''' "we", "us"
 
|-
The nominative and the ergative are never used with prepositions.
!Singular
 
!Dual
In the table below you have the most common Dahur prepositions:
!Plural
 
|-
{| class="wikitable"
!Nominative
|'''dɛ'''
|'''ʃes'''
|'''ʃɛn'''
|-
!Accusative
|'''dɛa''', '''da'''
|'''ʃeas''', '''ʃas'''
|'''ʃan'''
|-
|-
!Preposition
!Dative
!Case
|'''dɛw''', '''du'''
!Meaning
|'''ʃeus''', '''ʃews''', '''ʃus'''
|'''ʃɛun''', '''ʃɛwn''', '''ʃun'''
|-
|-
|}
!Genitive
 
|'''dɛk'''
 
|'''ʃesk'''
== Verbs ==
|'''ʃɛkɛn''', '''ʃkɛn'''
 
|-
The personal endings for all verb forms are as follows:
!Locative
 
|'''dɛbb'''
* 1s: '''-us'''
|'''ʃeps'''
* 2s: '''-im'''
|'''ʃɛmb'''
* 3s: '''-je'''
|-
* 1p: '''-tron'''
!Instrumental
* 2p: '''-trib'''
|'''dɛm'''
* 3p: '''-trɛw'''
|'''ʃems'''
|'''ʃɛom''', '''ʃom'''
|-
!Ablative
|'''dɛv'''
|'''ʃɛfs'''
|'''ʃɛɛv''', '''ʃɛv'''
|-
!Ergative
|'''dɛjøtr''', '''dɛtr'''
|'''ʃesøtr'''
|'''ʃɛtrøn''', '''ʃtrøn'''
|-
!Partitive
| -
|'''ʃets'''
|'''ʃɛnt'''
|}


=== Generic (Present) ===
{| class="wikitable"
The generic present tense corresponds to the bare stem, to which the personal endings are added. It mostly indicates the verbal idea without a specific context, time or aspect, and usually corresponds to the simple present tense indicating something as permanent, that is always true, or that repeats indefinitely. Ex.:
|-
 
|rowspan="2"|2nd Person
'''kaʃmal''' "take"
|'''hej''' "you (sg.), thou"
* 1s: '''kaʃmalus''' "I take"
|'''kwes''' "you both"
* 2s: '''kaʃmalim''' "you take"
|'''kwɛn''' "you (pl.)"
* 3s: '''kaʃmalje''' "he/she takes"
|-
* 1p: '''kaʃmaltron''' "we take"
!Singular
* 2p: '''kaʃmaltrib''' "you take"
!Dual
* 3p: '''kaʃmaltrɛw''' "they take"
!Plural
 
|-
'''la''' "be (permanently)"
!Nominative
* 1s: '''laus''' "I am"
|'''hej'''
* 2s: '''laim''' "you are"
|'''kwes'''
* 3s: '''laje''' "he/she is"
|'''kwɛn'''
* 1p: '''latron''' "we are"
|-
* 2p: '''latrib''' "you are"
!Accusative
* 3p: '''latrɛw''' "they are"
|'''heja''', '''ja'''
 
|'''kweas''', '''kwas'''
'''wennin''' "live"
|'''kwɛan''', '''kwan'''
* 1s: '''wenninus''' "I live"
|-
* 2s: '''wenninim''' "you live"
!Dative
* 3s: '''wenninje''' "he/she lives"
|'''heju''', '''ju'''
* 1p: '''wennintron''' "we live"
|'''kweus'''
* 2p: '''wennintrib''' "you live"
|'''kwɛun''', '''kun'''
* 3p: '''wennintrɛw''' "they live"
|-
 
!Genitive
=== Cursive (Present Continuous) ===
|'''heik''', '''hejik'''
This tense indicates an action ongoing at the moment of speech. It mostly corresponds to the English Present Continuous (or Progressive).
|'''kwesk'''
 
|'''kwɛnek''', '''kwɛnk'''
The verb stem receives the prefix '''a-''' and the suffix '''-(a)n-'''. Some verbs have irregular forms.
|-
 
!Locative
Ex.:
|'''heibb''', '''hibb'''
|'''kweps'''
|'''kwɛmb'''
|-
!Instrumental
|'''heim''', '''him'''
|'''kwems'''
|'''kwɛom''', '''kwɛm''', '''kwom'''
|-
!Ablative
|'''hejɛv''', '''jɛv'''
|'''kwɛfs'''
|'''kwɛɛv''', '''kwɛv'''
|-
!Ergative
|'''hejøtr''', '''hjøtr'''
|'''kwesøtr'''
|'''kwɛtrøn'''
|-
!Vocative
|'''heje'''
|'''kwejes'''
|'''kwɛjɛn'''
|-
!Partitive
| -  
|'''kwets'''
|'''kwɛnt'''
|}


'''kaʃmal''' "take"
{| class="wikitable"
* 1s: '''akaʃmalnus''' "I'm taking"
|-
* 2s: '''akaʃmalnim''' "you're taking"
|rowspan="2"|3rd Person
* 3s: '''akaʃmalnje''' "he/she's taking"
|'''nar''' "he", "she", "it"
* 1p: '''akaʃmalantron''' "we're taking"
|'''ras''' "they both"
* 2p: '''akaʃmalantrib''' "you're taking"
|'''ren''' "they", "them"
* 3p: '''akaʃmalantrɛw''' "they're taking"
|-
 
!Singular
'''la''' "be (currently, temporarily)"
!Dual
* 1s: '''alanus''' "I am"
!Plural
* 2s: '''alanim''' "you are"
|-
* 3s: '''alanje''' "he/she is"
!Nominative
* 1p: '''alantron''' "we are"
|'''nar'''
* 2p: '''alantrib''' "you are"
|'''ras'''
* 3p: '''alantrɛw''' "they are"
|'''rɛn'''
 
|-
'''wennin''' "live"
!Accusative
* 1s: '''awninnus''' "I'm living"
|'''nara''', '''ra'''
* 2s: '''awninnim''' "you're living"
|'''ras'''
* 3s: '''awninnje''' "he/she's living"
|'''rɛan''', '''ran'''
* 1p: '''awninntron''' "we're living"
|-
* 2p: '''awninntrib''' "you're living"
!Dative
* 3p: '''awninntrɛw''' "they're living"
|'''naru''', '''ru'''
 
|'''raus''', '''raws''', '''rus'''
=== Aorist (Simple Past) ===
|'''rɛun''', '''rɛwn''', '''run'''
This tense indicates a complete or punctual action in the past, usually with no relation to the present. It is common to associate this tense with a specific time phrase, establishing the moment it happened.
|-
 
!Genitive
The verb stem receives the suffix '''-doh-'''.
|'''narɛk''', '''rɛk'''
|'''resk'''
|'''rɛkɛn''', '''ɛrken'''
|-
!Locative
|'''narebb''', '''rebb'''
|'''reps'''
|'''rɛmb'''
|-
!Instrumental
|'''narom''', '''rom'''
|'''rems'''
|'''rɛnom''', '''rom'''
|-
!Ablative
|'''narɛv''', '''rɛv'''
|'''rɛfs'''
|'''rɛɛv''', '''rɛv'''
|-
!Ergative
|'''narøtr''', '''røtr'''
|'''resøtr'''
|'''rɛtrøn''', '''ɛrtrøn'''
|-
!Partitive
| -  
|'''rets'''
|'''rɛnt'''
|}


Ex.:  
The '''genitive''' forms work as possessive pronouns. In that case, the definite article is optional. Ex.:  
* '''tru dɛk astrønɛl''', '''dɛk astrønɛl''' "my idea"
* '''na heik kʃalima''', '''heik kʃalima''' "your hair (accus.)"
* '''trom narɛk kɛʃevom''', '''narɛk kɛʃevom''' "with his/her hammer (instr.)"
* '''tu dɛk menirun''', '''dɛk menirun''' "to my children (dat.)"


'''kaʃmal''' "take"
=== Demonstrative Pronouns ===
* 1s: '''kaʃmaldohus''' "I took"
* 2s: '''kaʃmaldohim''' "you took"
* 3s: '''kaʃmaldohje''' "he/she took"
* 1p: '''kaʃmaldohtron''' "we took"
* 2p: '''kaʃmaldohtrib''' "you took"
* 3p: '''kaʃmaldohtrɛw''' "they took"


'''la''' "be"
=== Interrogative Pronouns ===
* 1s: '''ladohus''' "I was (at some point)"
* 2s: '''ladohim''' "you were"
* 3s: '''ladohje''' "he/she was"
* 1p: '''ladohtron''' "we were"
* 2p: '''ladohtrib''' "you were"
* 3p: '''ladohtrɛw''' "they were"


'''wennin''' "live"
=== Indefinite Pronouns ===
* 1s: '''wennindohus''' "I lived"
* 2s: '''wennindohim''' "you lived"
* 3s: '''wennindohje''' "he/she lived"
* 1p: '''wennindohtron''' "we lived"
* 2p: '''wennindohtrib''' "you lived"
* 3p: '''wennindohtrɛw''' "they lived"


=== Perfect (Present Perfect) ===  
=== Relative Pronoun ===
The Perfect tense corresponds basically to the Present Perfect, indicating the result of an action that happened in a relatively recent past.
The main relative pronoun in Dahur is '''jao''', as shown in the following table.  


The verb stem receives the suffix '''-et(t)-'''. There are many irregular forms.


Ex.:
{| class="wikitable"
 
|-
'''kaʃmal''' "take"
!Singular
* 1s: '''kaʃmalettus''' "I've taken"
!Dual
* 2s: '''kaʃmalettim''' "you've taken"
!Plural
* 3s: '''kaʃmalettje''' "he/she's taken"
|-
* 1p: '''kaʃmalettron''' "we've taken"
!Nominative
* 2p: '''kaʃmalettrib''' "you've taken"
|'''jao'''
* 3p: '''kaʃmalettrɛw''' "they've taken"
|'''jes'''
 
|'''jen'''
'''la''' "be"
|-
* 1s: '''laettus''' "I've been"
!Accusative
* 2s: '''laettim''' "you've been"
|'''jaa''', '''ja'''
* 3s: '''laettje''' "he/she's been"
|'''jeas''', '''jas'''
* 1p: '''laettron''' "we've been"
|'''jaan''', '''jan'''
* 2p: '''laettrib''' "you've been"
|-
* 3p: '''laettrɛw''' "they've been"
!Dative
|'''jau''', '''jaw'''
|'''jeus''', '''jews'''
|'''jeun''', '''jewn'''
|-
!Genitive
|'''jak'''
|'''jesk'''
|'''jenk'''
|-
!Locative
|'''jaebb'''
|'''jaeps'''
|'''jaemb'''
|-
!Instrumental
|'''jaom'''
|'''jaoms'''
|'''jaom'''
|-
!Ablative
|'''jaɛv'''
|'''jaɛfs'''
|'''janɛv'''
|-
!Ergative
|'''jaøtr'''
|'''jasøtr'''
|'''jatrøn'''
|-
!Partitive
| -
|'''jets'''
|'''jent'''
|}


'''wennin''' "live"
The pronoun agrees in number with the antecedent, but its case is determined by its function in the subordinate clause. Ex.:
* 1s: '''wennettus''' "I've lived"
* '''tru grats jao ateʃfanej''' "the boy (nom.) who (nom.) is running away"
* 2s: '''wennettim''' "you've lived"
* '''na gratsa jao ateʃfanej''' "the boy (accus.) who (nom.) is running away"
* 3s: '''wennettje''' "he/she's lived"
* '''kʃu gratsu jao ateʃfanej''' "to the boy (dat.) who (nom.) is running away"
* 1p: '''wennettron''' "we've lived"
* '''kis gratsak jao ateʃfanej''' "of the boy (gen.) who (nom.) is running away"
* 2p: '''wennettrib''' "you've lived"
* '''trø gratsøtr jao ateʃfanej''' "by the boy (erg.) who (nom.) is running away"
* 3p: '''wennettrɛw''' "they've lived"
* '''tann gratsen jen ateʃfanɛw''' "the boys (nom.) who (nom.) are running away"
* '''ta gratsan jen ateʃfanɛw''' "the boys (accus.) who (nom.) are running away"
* '''tun gratsun jen ateʃfanɛw''' "to the boys (dat.) who (nom.) are running away"  
* '''tak gratsken jen ateʃfanɛw''' "of the boys (gen.) who (nom.) are running away"
* '''tøtr gratsetrøn jen ateʃfanɛw''' "by the boys (erg.) who (nom.) are running away"  
* '''tru grats jaa kahettsa''' "the boy (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw"
* '''na gratsa jaa kahettsa''' "the boy (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw"  
* '''kʃu gratsu jaa kahettsa''' "to the boy (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw"
* '''kis gratsak jaa kahettsa''' "of the boy (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw"  
* '''trø gratsøtr jaa kahettsa''' "by the boy (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw"
* '''tann gratsen jaan kahettsa''' "the boys (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw"  
* '''ta gratsan jaan kahettsa''' "the boys (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw"
* '''tun gratsun jaan kahettsa''' "to the boys (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw"  
* '''tak gratsken jaan kahettsa''' "of the boys (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw"
* '''tøtr gratsetrøn jaan kahettsa''' "by the boys (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw"  


 
Besides this pronoun, relative clauses may also be formed with special verb forms.  
 
=== Future ===
The future is formed with the prefix '''u-''' and the suffix '''-(u)ʃ-'''.  


Ex.:
Ex.:


== Verbs ==


'''kaʃmal''' "take"
=== Finite Forms ===
* 1s: '''ukaʃmalʃus''' "I'll take"
* 2s: '''ukaʃmalʃim''' "you'll take"
* 3s: '''ukaʃmaluʃje''' "he/she'll takes"
* 1p: '''ukaʃmaluʃtron''' "we'll take"
* 2p: '''ukaʃmaluʃtrib''' "you'll take"
* 3p: '''ukaʃmaluʃtrɛw''' "they'll take"


'''la''' "be (permanently)"
Verbs in Dahur have different stems indicating aspect. The conjugation uses different sets of endings to indicate tense or time.
* 1s: '''ulaʃus''' "I'll be"
* 2s: '''ulaʃim''' "you'll be"
* 3s: '''ulaʃje''' "he/she'll be"
* 1p: '''ulaʃtron''' "we'll be"
* 2p: '''ulaʃtrib''' "you'll be"
* 3p: '''ulaʃtrɛw''' "they'll be"


'''wennin''' "live"
The basic verb stems are:  
* 1s: '''uwenninʃus''' "I'll live"
* 2s: '''uwenninʃim''' "you'll live"
* 3s: '''uwenninuʃje''' "he/she'll lives"
* 1p: '''uwenninuʃtron''' "we'll live"
* 2p: '''uwenninuʃtrib''' "you'll live"
* 3p: '''uwenninuʃtrɛw''' "they'll live"


 
{| class="wikitable"
=== Conditional ===
|-
The conditional is formed with the prefix '''i-''' and the suffix '''-i-'''.
!Aspect
!Meaning
!Form
|-
|Generic
|''verbal idea without a specific context, time or aspect''
|the basic stem of the verb
|-
|Cursive (Progressive; Continuous)
|''action ongoing at the moment of reference
|prefix '''a-''' and suffix '''-(a)n-'''
|-
|Aorist
|''a complete or punctual action''
|suffix '''-(e)tt-'''
|-
|Perfect
|''the result of an action that happened before the reference time''
|suffix '''-(l)l(a)-'''
|-
|Unrealised (Future)
|''action as not realised in relation to the reference time''
|prefix '''u-''' and suffix '''-(u)ʃ-'''
|-
|Conditional
|''irrealis, usually an action depending on another''
|prefix '''i-''' and suffix '''-i-'''
|}
 
Stem formation is often irregular.


Ex.:  
Ex.:  


'''kaʃmal''' "take"
{| class="wikitable"
* 1s: '''ikaʃmalius''' "I take"
|-
* 2s: '''ikaʃmaliim''' "you take"
|
* 3s: '''ikaʃmalije''' "he/she takes"
!Generic
* 1p: '''ikaʃmalitron''' "we take"
!Cursive
* 2p: '''ikaʃmalitrib''' "you take"
!Aorist
* 3p: '''ikaʃmalitrɛw''' "they take"
!Perfect
 
!Unrealised
'''la''' "be (permanently)"
!Conditional
* 1s: '''ilaius''' "I am"
|-
* 2s: '''ilaiim''' "you are"
|'''kaʃmal''' "take"
* 3s: '''ilaije''' "he/she is"
|'''kaʃmal-'''
* 1p: '''ilaitron''' "we are"
|'''akʃmalan-'''
* 2p: '''ilaitrib''' "you are"
|'''kaʃmalett-'''
* 3p: '''ilaitrɛw''' "they are"
|'''kaʃmalla-'''
|'''ukaʃmaluʃ-'''
|'''ikaʃmali-'''
|-
|'''la''' "be"
|'''la-'''
|'''alan-'''
|'''latt-'''
|'''lalla-'''
|'''ulauʃ-'''
|'''ilai-'''
|-
|'''wennin''' "live"  
|'''wennin-'''
|'''awann-'''
|'''wennett-'''
|'''wennilla-'''
|'''uwenninʃ-'''
|'''iwennini-'''
|-
|'''gadra''' "write"
|'''gadra-'''
|'''agandran-'''
|'''gadrett-'''
|'''gadralla-'''
|'''ugadruʃ-'''
|'''igadri-'''
|-
|'''tefʃiv''' "flee"
|'''tefʃiv-'''
|'''ateʃfan-'''
|'''tefʃivett-'''
|'''tefʃivla-'''
|'''utefʃivuʃ-'''
|'''itefʃivi-'''
|-
|'''maʃkintɾod''' "represent"
|'''maʃkintɾod-'''
|'''amaʃkintɾon-'''
|'''maʃkintɾott-'''
|'''maʃkintɾolla-'''
|'''umaʃkintɾotʃ-'''
|'''imaʃkintɾodi-'''
|-
|'''kajnaar''' "jump"
|'''kajnaar-'''
|'''akajnaan-'''
|'''kajnerett-'''
|'''kajnaalla-'''
|'''ukajnaaruʃ-'''
|'''ikajnaari-'''
|-
|'''taldesyys''' "take care of"
|'''taldesyys-'''
|'''ataldesyyn-'''
|'''taldesyyst-'''
|'''taldesyyll-'''
|'''utaldesyyʃ-'''
|'''italdesyysi-'''
|-
|'''kota''' "eat"
|'''kota-'''
|'''ankon-'''
|'''kotatt-'''
|'''kekolla-'''
|'''ukotuʃ-'''
|'''ikoti-'''
|-
|'''hussi''' "hear, listen"
|'''hussi-'''
|'''ahsejn-'''
|'''hust-'''
|'''huzilla-'''
|'''uhussuʃ-'''
|'''ihusseji-'''
|-
|'''ken''', '''kena''' "see"
|'''ken-''', '''kena-'''
|'''angen-'''
|'''kahett-'''
|'''kenalla-''', '''kralla-'''
|'''ukunuʃ-'''
|'''ikeni-'''
|-
|'''mend''' "become"
|'''mend-'''
|'''amdan-'''
|'''menett-'''
|'''mendla-'''
|'''umenduʃ-'''
|'''imendi-'''
|-
|'''ustaj''', '''ustaji''' "come"
|'''ustaj-''', '''ustaji-'''
|'''anstajn-''', '''anstajin-'''
|'''ustatt-''', '''ustitt-'''
|'''ustalla-''', '''ustilla-'''
|'''ustajuʃ-'''
|'''istaji-'''
|-
|'''maj''' "go"
|'''maj-'''
|'''amann-'''
|'''menett-'''
|'''mjalla-'''
|'''umujuʃ-'''
|'''imaji-'''
|-
|'''trak''' "do, make"
|'''trak-'''
|'''atrakan-'''
|'''tetrakett'''
|'''ketralla-'''
|'''utrakʃ-'''
|'''itraggi-'''
|}
 


'''wennin''' "live"
The personal endings are :
* 1s: '''iwenninius''' "I live"
 
* 2s: '''iwenniniim''' "you live"
{| class="wikitable"
* 3s: '''iwenninije''' "he/she lives"
|-
* 1p: '''iwenninitron''' "we live"
|
* 2p: '''iwenninitrib''' "you live"
!Present
* 3p: '''iwenninitrɛw''' "they live"
!Past
!Future
|-
!1s
|'''-us'''
|'''-sa'''
|'''-os'''
|-
!2s
|'''-im'''
|'''-mis'''
|'''-om'''
|-
!3s
|'''-ej'''
|'''-jes'''
|'''-oj'''
|-
!1p
|'''-ɔn'''
|'''-sɔn'''
|'''-on'''
|-
!2p
|'''-ib'''
|'''-ips'''
|'''-ob'''
|-
!3p
|'''-ɛw'''
|'''-sɛw'''
|'''-ow'''
|}
 
 
The following combinations of stem + ending set occur:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|
|Present
|Past
|Future
|-
|Generic
!Simple
Present
!Habitual
Past ("used to")
!Indefinite
Future
|-
|Cursive
!Present
Continuous
!Past
Continuous
!Future
Progressive
|-
|Aorist
|
!Simple
Past (Aorist)
!Definite Future
(Specific, Punctual)
|-
|Perfect
!Present
Perfect
!Past
Perfect
!Future
Perfect
|-
|Unrealised
!Near
Future
!Unrealised
Past ("would")
!Future
(Remote)
|-
|Conditional
!Conditional
Present
!Conditional
Past
|
|}
 
While the formation of aspect stems is often irregular, the combination of stem + endings is usually quite regular and predictable. The usual epenthetic phonemes occur, mostly the semivowels ('''j''' and '''w'''), when two vowels come together, but these are more an artifact of speech and aren't usually indicated in writing. Ex.:
* '''kaʃmallaus''', '''kaʃmallawus'''
* '''kaʃmallaim''', '''kaʃmallajim'''
* '''kaʃmallaej''', '''kaʃmallajej''', '''kaʃmallahej'''
* '''kaʃmallaɔn''', '''kaʃmallawɔn'''
* '''igadriips''', '''igadrijips'''
* '''igadrius''', '''igadrijus'''
* &c.
 
==== Conjugation ====
Next you have a few verbs, conjugated in all its forms.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|colspan="7" style="text-align:center;"|Verb '''la''' "be"
|-
|
!Simple Present
!Present Continuous
|
!Present Perfect
!Near Future
!Conditional Present
|-
!1s
|'''laus'''
|'''alanus'''
|
|'''lallaus'''
|'''ulauʃus'''
|'''ilaius'''
|-
!2s
|'''laim'''
|'''alanim'''
|
|'''lallaim'''
|'''ulauʃim'''
|'''ilaiim'''
|-
!3s
|'''laje'''
|'''alanje'''
|
|'''lallaje'''
|'''ulauʃje'''
|'''ilaije'''
|-
!1p
|'''laɔn'''
|'''alanɔn'''
|
|'''lallaɔn'''
|'''ulauʃɔn'''
|'''ilaiɔn'''
|-
!2p
|'''laib'''
|'''alanib'''
|
|'''lallaib'''
|'''ulauʃib'''
|'''ilaiib'''
|-
!3p
|'''laɛw'''
|'''alanɛw'''
|
|'''lallaɛw'''
|'''ulauʃɛw'''
|'''ilaiɛw'''
|-
|
!Habitual Past
!Past Continuous
!Simple Past
!Past Perfect
!Unrealised Past
!Conditional Past
|-
!1s
|'''lasa'''
|'''alansa'''
|'''lattsa'''
|'''lallasa'''
|'''ulauʃsa'''
|'''ilaisa'''
|-
!2s
|'''lamis'''
|'''alanmis'''
|'''lattmis'''
|'''lallamis'''
|'''ulauʃmis'''
|'''ilaimis'''
|-
!3s
|'''lajes'''
|'''alanjes'''
|'''lattjes'''
|'''lallajes'''
|'''ulauʃjes'''
|'''ilaijes'''
|-
!1p
|'''lasɔn'''
|'''alansɔn'''
|'''lattsɔn'''
|'''lallasɔn'''
|'''ulauʃsɔn'''
|'''ilaisɔn'''
|-
!2p
|'''laips'''
|'''alanips'''
|'''lattips'''
|'''lallaips'''
|'''ulauʃips'''
|'''ilaiips'''
|-
!3p
|'''lasɛw'''
|'''alansɛw'''
|'''lattsɛw'''
|'''lallasɛw'''
|'''ulauʃsɛw'''
|'''ilaisɛw'''
|-
|
!Indefinite Future
!Future Progressive
!Definite Future
!Future Perfect
!Remote Future
|
|-
!1s
|'''laos'''
|'''alanos'''
|'''lattos'''
|'''lallaos'''
|'''ulauʃos'''
|
|-
!2s
|'''laom'''
|'''alanom'''
|'''lattom'''
|'''lallaom'''
|'''ulauʃom'''
|
|-
!3s
|'''laoj'''
|'''alanoj'''
|'''lattoj'''
|'''lallaoj'''
|'''ulauʃoj'''
|
|-
!1p
|'''laon'''
|'''alanon'''
|'''latton'''
|'''lallaon'''
|'''ulauʃon'''
|
|-
!2p
|'''laob'''
|'''alanob'''
|'''lattob'''
|'''lallaob'''
|'''ulauʃob'''
|
|-
!3p
|'''laow'''
|'''alanow'''
|'''lattow'''
|'''lallaow'''
|'''ulauʃow'''
|
|}
 
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|colspan="7" style="text-align:center;"|Verb '''hussi''' "hear, listen"  
|-
|
!Simple Present
!Present Continuous
|
!Present Perfect
!Near Future
!Conditional Present
|-
!1s
|'''hussius'''
|'''ahsejnus'''
|
|'''huzillaus'''
|'''uhussuʃus'''
|'''ihussejius'''
|-
!2s
|'''hussiim'''
|'''ahsejnim'''
|
|'''huzillaim'''
|'''uhussuʃim'''
|'''ihussejiim'''
|-
!3s
|'''hussije'''
|'''ahsejnje'''
|
|'''huzillaje'''
|'''uhussuʃje'''
|'''ihussejije'''
|-
!1p
|'''hussiɔn'''
|'''ahsejnɔn'''
|
|'''huzillaɔn'''
|'''uhussuʃɔn'''
|'''ihussejiɔn'''
|-
!2p
|'''hussiib'''
|'''ahsejnib'''
|
|'''huzillaib'''
|'''uhussuʃib'''
|'''ihussejiib'''
|-
!3p
|'''hussiɛw'''
|'''ahsejnɛw'''
|
|'''huzillaɛw'''
|'''uhussuʃɛw'''
|'''ihussejiɛw'''
|-
|
!Habitual Past
!Past Continuous
!Simple Past
!Past Perfect
!Unrealised Past
!Conditional Past
|-
!1s
|'''hussisa'''
|'''ahsejnsa'''
|'''hustsa'''
|'''huzillasa'''
|'''uhussuʃsa'''
|'''ihussejisa'''
|-
!2s
|'''hussimis'''
|'''ahsejnmis'''
|'''hustmis'''
|'''huzillamis'''
|'''uhussuʃmis'''
|'''ihussejimis'''
|-
!3s
|'''hussijes'''
|'''ahsejnjes'''
|'''hustjes'''
|'''huzillajes'''
|'''uhussuʃjes'''
|'''ihussejijes'''
|-
!1p
|'''hussisɔn'''
|'''ahsejnsɔn'''
|'''hustsɔn'''
|'''huzillasɔn'''
|'''uhussuʃsɔn'''
|'''ihussejisɔn'''
|-
!2p
|'''hussiips'''
|'''ahsejnips'''
|'''hustips'''
|'''huzillaips'''
|'''uhussuʃips'''
|'''ihussejiips'''
|-
!3p
|'''hussisɛw'''
|'''ahsejnsɛw'''
|'''hustsɛw'''
|'''huzillasɛw'''
|'''uhussuʃsɛw'''
|'''ihussejisɛw'''
|-
|
!Indefinite Future
!Future Progressive
!Definite Future
!Future Perfect
!Remote Future
|
|-
!1s
|'''hussios'''
|'''ahsejnos'''
|'''hustos'''
|'''huzillaos'''
|'''uhussuʃos'''
|
|-
!2s
|'''hussiom'''
|'''ahsejnom'''
|'''hustom'''
|'''huzillaom'''
|'''uhussuʃom'''
|
|-
!3s
|'''hussioj'''
|'''ahsejnoj'''
|'''hustoj'''
|'''huzillaoj'''
|'''uhussuʃoj'''
|
|-
!1p
|'''hussion'''
|'''ahsejnon'''
|'''huston'''
|'''huzillaon'''
|'''uhussuʃon'''
|
|-
!2p
|'''hussiob'''
|'''ahsejnob'''
|'''hustob'''
|'''huzillaob'''
|'''uhussuʃob'''
|
|-
!3p
|'''hussiow'''
|'''ahsejnow'''
|'''hustow'''
|'''huzillaow'''
|'''uhussuʃow'''
|
|}

Latest revision as of 13:02, 17 July 2026

Phonology

Vowels

Dahur vowels are usually short. Double vowels (ex.: aa, ee &c.) may happen, but they are considered as simple vowel sequences.

The following vowels qualities are distinguished:

a e ɛ i o ɔ ø œ u y

The diagram below shows the 10 vowels of Dahur.

In practice, the vowel /a/ may actually vary between /a/, /ä/ and /ɑ/.

Merging of /ø/ and /œ/ is fairly common, especially in more informal contexts, as these two vowels mostly don't occur as minimal pair (except in a couple cases).

Consonants

Dahur consonants are as follows:

Bilabial Labiodental Alveolar Postalveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m n
Plosive p b t d k g
Sibilant fricative s z ʃ ʒ
Non-sibilant fricative f v h
Approximant j
Tap/Flap/Trill ɾ r
Lateral Approx. l

The rhotic consonant (r) is in free variation and may be realised either as a tap, a flap or a trill. The trill pronunciation (/r/) is more common at the beginning of a syllable, and even more so at the beginning of a word. The tap/flap pronunciation (/ɾ/) is more common in consonant clusters, especially after a plosive.

In Dahur phonology, the combinations tr and kʃ count as single, independent consonants.

Phonotactics

A syllable in Dahur must contain one vowel, which may be preceded and/or followed by any number of consonants. In practice, consonant clusters don't usually go beyond four consonants. For that account, kʃ and tɾ are always considered as single consonants.

All consonant sequences are possible. However, in practice, some consonant combinations (ex. -hm-, -tɾkʃ- &c.) are rare.

Some studies consider the existence of a glottal stop when a proper consonant is absent. This view is reflected in the writing, which has a special sign for the glottal stop / lack of a consonant. The last consonant of a syllable can be doubled.

Examples of valid syllables:

a tɛ en wi koj gjɔ pɾujn kʃtɾa fʃtlœmbz

Stress

In the standard pronunciation, words are stressed on the next-to-last syllable. However, if the last syllable contains the consonant /tɾ/, it will be stressed.

Ex.:

kanar

/ˈka.nar/

ostrøndɛl

/os.ˈtɾøn.dɛl/

tefʃiv

/ˈtef.ʃiv/

dasutɾ

/daˈsutɾ/

maʃkintɾod

/maʃ.kinˈtɾod/

Doubled vowels in the last syllable may sound as a long, stressed vowel; however, they are actually two separate vowels, each one in a different syllable, with stress falling on the first one (or on the last, in case that syllable contains the consonant tr). It is not uncommon to hear an epenthetic h, j or w between the two vowels.

Ex.:


kajnaar

/kaj.ˈna.ar/,
/kaj.ˈna.har/

pakisaatr

/pa.ki.sa.ˈatr/,
/pa.ki.sa.ˈhatr/

tøndelliin

/tøn.del.ˈli.in/,
/tøn.del.ˈli.jin/,
/tøn.del.ˈli.hin/

taldesyys

/tal.de.ˈsy.ys/,
/tal.de.ˈsy.hys/

Writing

Dahur script consists in an alphasyllabary consisting in separate letters indicating consonants, a combination of separate letters and diacritics to indicate vowels, as well as certain special letters for individual syllables.

Morphology

Dahur is a highly flexional language, with a strong presence of irregular forms.

Nouns inflect for number, which is basically singular and plural, but there are also occurrences of dual (for things normally occurring in pairs) and singulative (for individual items of things usually found collectively).

Nouns also inflect for case, usually: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, locative, instrumental, ergative and ablative. Instances of partitive and vocative are also found. The case called ergative is used basically for the agent of the passive voice.

Adjectives show no agreement to nouns, and inflect for degree (comparatives of superiority, equality, inferiority; relative and absolute superlative).


Nouns

Class

Dahurian nouns are divided in five classes, which can be compared to Latin or Greek declensions, as they consist in different inflection patterns, but may also be seen as a form of gender, as class is usually (but not always necessarily) related to the meaning of a noun.


Class 1 Living beings
Class 2 General objects
Class 3 Natural elements; insects
Class 4 Parts of human body; clothing
Class 5 Abstract nouns; traditional imaginary beings


There are no morphological indications related to noun classes in the nominative singular. The differences appear along the inflection of nouns.


Number

Nouns in Dahur have a singular and a plural. The plural ending varies according to noun class and to case. There is also a dual number, which is valid only for nouns normally occurring in pairs. Mass or collective nouns have a singulative inflection, but this is not very systematically indicated.


So, for example:


Class Singular Plural Dual Singulative
class 1 grats

"boy"

gratsen

"boys"

- -
class 2 kɛʃev

"hammer"

kɛʃevlin

"hammers"

kɛʃevs

"pair of hammers" (traditionally used by blacksmiths)

-
class 3 halajn

"water"

halejnn

"waters" (i.e. in a flood)

halajns

"The Two Waters" (the river Okanuma and the lake Kassanjas)

halajny

"a drop of water"

class 4 kanar

"eye"

kanarni

"many eyes" (mostly figuratively)

kanaris

"(two/both) eyes"

-
class 4 kʃalim

"hair"

kʃalimni

"(types of) hair"

- kʃalimy

"a (single) hair"

class 5 astrønɛl

"idea"

astrønɛljan

"ideas"

astrønɛls

"a couple ideas"

-


The plural in classes 1, 2 and 5 is usually regular, obtained with the respective suffixes (-en, -lin, -jan).

Ex.:

Class Singular Plural
class 1 katlaj

"girlfriend"

katlajen
dukʃatr

"boss"

dukʃatren
egastɛv

"farmer"

egastɛven
class 2 takoj

"pin"

takojlin
uhpsan

"paper"

uhpsanlin
dasutr

"document, file"

dasutrlin
class 5 pɛktegal

"angel"

pɛktegaljan
ostrøndɛl

"interruption"

ostrøndɛljan
piktaraʃ

"problem"

piktaraʃjan


In classes 3 and 4, besides the suffixes (-n, -ni), most nouns suffer some sort of mutation, usually affecting only one vowel but non uncommonly consisting of more significative changes.


Ex.:

Class Singular Plural
class 3 pakpaki

"louse"

pakpɛkin
pahalis

"leaf"

pahaljen
tʃeptal

"cloud"

tʃapatlin, tʃaptlin
class 4 kraus

"ear"

krojsni
ɛmblew

"hat"

ɛmbalni
krikter

"helmet"

kruktni

Case

Dahur nouns inflect for the following cases:

  • nominative (subject, predicative)
  • accusative (direct object, motion towards)
  • dative (indirect object)
  • genitive (possession, partitive, origin)
  • locative (location, placement)
  • instrumental (instrument, means, company)
  • ablative (adverbial)
  • ergative (agent of the passive voice)

All cases except the nominative and the ergative can be used with prepositions.

Certain nouns, mostly nouns indicating human beings, also show a vocative form, mostly formed with the ending -e, but usually irregular.

Certain nouns, for example nouns indicating mass or food, show a partitive case, usually formed with the ending -(i)t.


Inflection

Noun declension in Dahur is quite regular, in terms of case and the less usual numbers, viz. the dual and the singulative.


Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5
Sing. Dual Pl. Sing. Dual Pl. Sing. Dual Pl. Sing. Dual Pl. Sing. Dual Pl.
Nominative - -s -en - -s -lin - -s -n - -is -ni - -s -jan
Accusative -a -as -an -a -as -lajn -a -as -an -a -jas -nja -a -as -jan
Dative -u -us -un -u -us -lun -u -us -wan -u -ujs -nu -u -us -ujn
Genitive -ak -ask -ken -ik -isk -link -aʃ -ʃas -ʃan -iʃ -siʃ -niʃ -ik -isk -jank
Locative -ebb -eps -emb -ebb -eps -limb -ebb -eps -emb -ebb -bis -nibb -ebb -eps -jamb
Instrumental -om -oms -nom -om -oms -lom -om -oms -nom -om -joms -njom -om -oms -njom
Ablative -ɛv -ɛfs -nɛv -ɛv -ɛfs -lɛnv, -lɛv -ɛv -ɛfs -nɛv -ɛv -jɛfs -njɛv -ɛv -ɛfs -njɛv
Ergative -øtr -søtr -trøn -øtr -søtr -løtr -øtr -søtr -trøn -øtr -sjøtr -trøjn -øtr -søtr -trøjn


When an ending starting with a vowel is applied, a final -i becomes -j-, and a final -u becomes -w-; otherwise, an -h- is added. Ex.:

  • dula "babysitter", dulahen "babysitters"
  • agdari "prisoner", agdarjen "prisoners"
  • pakpaki "louse", pakpakja "louse (accus.)", pakpakjaʃ "of a louse", pakpakjom "by a louse"



In the following tables, you have some examples of nouns of the various classes, fully inflected for number and case.

  • Class 1: grats "boy"
  • Class 2: kɛʃev "hammer"
  • Class 3: tʃeptal "cloud"
  • Class 4: kraus "ear"
  • Class 5: astrønɛl "idea"


Class 1: grats "boy"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative grats gratss gratsen
Accusative gratsa gratsas gratsan
Dative gratsu gratsus gratsun
Genitive gratsak gratsask gratsken
Locative gratsebb gratseps gratsemb
Instrumental gratsom gratsoms gratsnom
Ablative gratsɛv gratsɛfs gratsnɛv
Ergative gratsøtr gratssøtr gratsetrøn
Vocative gratse gratses gratsen


Class 2: kɛʃev "hammer"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative kɛʃev kɛʃevs kɛʃevlin
Accusative kɛʃeva kɛʃevas kɛʃevlajn
Dative kɛʃevu kɛʃevus kɛʃevlun
Genitive kɛʃevik kɛʃevisk kɛʃevlink
Locative kɛʃevebb kɛʃeveps kɛʃevlimb
Instrumental kɛʃevom kɛʃevoms kɛʃevlom
Ablative kɛʃevɛv kɛʃevɛfs kɛʃevlɛnv, kɛʃevlɛv
Ergative kɛʃevøtr kɛʃevsøtr kɛʃevløtr


Class 3: tʃeptal "cloud"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative tʃeptal tʃeptals tʃaptlin
Accusative tʃeptala tʃeptalas tʃaptlijan, tʃaptljan
Dative tʃeptalu tʃeptalus tʃaptliwan
Genitive tʃeptalaʃ tʃeptalʃas tʃaptliʃan
Locative tʃeptalebb tʃeptaleps tʃaptlijemb, tʃaptljemb
Instrumental tʃeptalom tʃeptaloms tʃaptlinom
Ablative tʃeptalɛv tʃeptalɛfs tʃaptlinɛv
Ergative tʃeptaløtr tʃeptalsøtr tʃaptlitrøn
Partitive tʃeptalt tʃeptalts tʃaptlint


Class 4: kraus "ear"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative kraus krausis krojsni
Accusative krausa krausjas krojsnja
Dative krausu krausujs krojsnu
Genitive krausiʃ kraussiʃ krojsniʃ
Locative krausebb krauseps krojsnibb
Instrumental krausom krausoms krojsnjom
Ablative krausɛv krausɛfs krojsnjɛv
Ergative krausøtr krausjøtr krojstrøjn


Class 5: astrønɛl "idea"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative astrønɛl astrønɛls astrønɛljan
Accusative astrønɛla astrønɛlas astrønɛljan
Dative astrønɛlu astrønɛlus astrønɛlujn
Genitive astrønɛlik astrønɛlisk astrønɛljank
Locative astrønɛlebb astrønɛleps astrønɛljamb
Instrumental astrønɛlom astrønɛloms astrønɛlnjom
Ablative astrønɛlɛv astrønɛlɛfs astrønɛlnjɛv
Ergative astrønɛløtr astrønɛlsøtr astrønɛltrøjn
Partitive astrønɛlt astrønɛlts astrønɛljant

Articles

Definite Article

The definite article inflects for case and number, and is quite irregular.

Singular Dual Plural Singulative
Nominative tru gas tann try
Accusative na ga ta ny
Dative kʃu gu tun kʃu
Genitive kis gak tak kis
Locative debb gebb tebb debb
Instrumental trom gom tom trom
Ablative dɛv gɛv tɛv dɛv
Ergative trø gøtr tøtr trø

Indefinite Article

Dahur has no proper indefinite article.

If it's really necessary to mark a noun phrase as indefinite, an indefinite pronoun may be used. The most common is lum (invariable), meaning "some", "a certain" &c.


Prepositions

Prepositions in Dahur require the noun in one of the following cases:

  • accusative
  • dative
  • genitive
  • ablative
  • instrumental
  • locative

The nominative and the ergative are never used with prepositions.

In the table below you have the most common Dahur prepositions:

Preposition Case Meaning
dun locative, accusative of movement inside
yin dative for, in behalf of
accusative towards
ari, ar genitive from, out of
yuʃ genitive, ablative because of
vøj locative through
syn locative; accusative of movement near
kʃe genitive since, ago
pɛn locative; accusative of movement besides, next to
lujg locative; accusative of movement in front of
mœh ablative without
sto locative; accusative of movement on, on top of
krɔj locative; accusative of movement under
tjɛs genitive before (time)
gwaj accusative after (time)
fyj ablative during
vlen instrumental despite
uhk genitive except
uzd dative instead of
blas locative; accusative of movement behind


Examples:

  • yin na hedana "towards the house"
  • dun na hedana "into the house"
  • ar kis hedanik "from the house", "out of the house"
  • syn debb hedanebb "near the house"
  • syn na hedana "going near of the house"
  • pɛn debb hedanebb "besides the house", "next to the house"
  • pɛn na hedana "going next to the house"
  • lujg debb hedanebb "in front to the house"
  • lujg na hedana "going to the front of the house"
  • mœh dɛv hedanɛv "without the house"
  • sto debb hedanebb "on top of the house"
  • sto na hedana "going onto (the top of) the house"
  • krɔj debb hedanebb "under the house"
  • uzd kʃu hedanu "instead of the house"
  • blas debb hedanebb "behind the house"
  • blas na hedana "going behind the house"


Adjectives

Attributive Adjectives

Attributive adjectives in Dahur are invariable and come before the noun. Ex.:

  • fɛren grats "a smart boy"
  • duʃ halajn "clean water"
  • selak kanaris "pretty eyes"

A few attributes may be expressed by affixes to the noun, instead of the separate adjective. The most common ones are:

Adjective Affix Meaning
nahar -os

(usually deleting the last vowel of the original noun)

"big", "large"
kitr -in-

(before the last vowel of the or. noun)

"small", "little"
suwani -(t)ta-

(before the second vowel of the or. noun)

"good"
daggus, daggussa -aar "bad"

Examples:


With Adjective With Affixed Form Meaning
nahar piktaraʃ piktarʃos "a big problem"
kitr piktaraʃ piktarinaʃ "a little problem"
suwani astrønɛl attastrønɛl "a good idea"
daggus astrønɛl, daggussa astrønɛl astrønɛlaar "a bad idea"


Certain adjectives have a special, shortened form, which is prefixed to nouns when used attributively. The most common ones are:


Adjective Affix Meaning
nahar nah- "big", "large"
kitr ki-

(doubles the initial consonant of the noun)

"small", "little"
suwani suw- (suww- before vowels) "good"
daggus, daggussa dag- (dagg- before vowels) "bad"
sulin sin- "new"
dotrɛ dom- "old"
mahhalis mah- "ancient"
makʃølen, makʃølin møkʃ- "important", "great"
tossan tos-, tan- "beautiful"
abliki killi- "false", "fake"


Examples:


With Adjective With Prefix Meaning
nahar piktaraʃ nahpiktaraʃ "a big problem"
kitr piktaraʃ kippiktaraʃ "a small problem"
suwani astrønɛl suwwastrønɛl "a good idea"
daggus astrønɛl, daggussa astrønɛl daggastrønɛl "a bad idea"
sulin dasutr sindasutr "a new document"
dotrɛ hedan domhedan "an old house"
mahhalis kataʃtevan mahkataʃtevan "an ancient civilization"
makʃølen dasutr, makʃølin dasutr møkʃdasutr "an important document"
makʃølen astrønɛl, makʃølin astrønɛl møkʃastrønɛl "a great idea"
tossan dummal tosdummal, tandummal "a beautiful song"
abliki bɔrakʃ killibɔrakʃ "false news", "fake news"

Predicative Adjectives

An adjective used in predicative function is invariable. Only the full forms of adjectives can be used predicatively.

Usually a linking verb is employed. Ex.:

Tru astrønɛl laje makʃølen. The idea is great.
Tru grats alanje befitra. The boy is tired.


There is also the possibility of turning adjectives into verbs. Ex.:

Tru astrønɛl makʃølnaje. The idea is great.
Tru grats abefitranje. The boy is tired.


The most common way to make an adjective into a verb, implying the idea of "be", is the suffix -a-, which may cause some change in the last syllable of the original adjective. If the adjective already ends in -a, there is no change. Ex.:

Adjective Verb
makʃølen

"great"

makʃølna

"be great"

befitra

"tired"

befitra

"be tired"

suwani

"good"

suwanja

"be good"

daggus

"bad"

daggusa

"be bad"

sulin

"new"

sulna

"be new"

dotrɛ

"old"

dɛtra

"be old"

tossan

"beautiful"

tossana, tosna

"be beautiful"

trapter

"unique"

traptra

"be unique"

ʃɔtma

"sure", "certain"

ʃɔtama

"be sure", "be certain"

kanikli

"appropriate"

kankilja

"be appropriate"

tubbar

"white"

tubabra

"be white"

kindis

"clear"

kinitsa

"be clear"

Another suffix is -(a)st(a)-, meaning "to get" or "to become". The first optional -a- appears when necessary, to avoid unsuitable consonant clusters, while the final -a is only used in the infinitive form of the verb - i.e., without any suffixes. There are some irregular formations.

Ex.:

Adjective Verb
makʃølen

"great"

makʃølnasta

"become great"

befitra

"tired"

befitrasta

"get tired"

nahar

"big, large"

nahasta, narasta

"get big", "increase"

kitr

"little, small"

kitrasta, katrasta, kirrasta

"get smaller", "decrease"

suwani

"good"

suwanasta

"become good"

suwasta, sawasta, suwnasta

"get better", "improve"

daggus , daggussa

"bad"

daggusasta, daggussasta

"become bad"

daggasta

"get worse"

dotrɛ

"old"

dotrɛsta

"become old"

dotrasta

"get older", "to age"

tossan

"beautiful

tossanasta

"become beautiful"

tossasta, tosnasta

"get prettier", "beautify"

abliki

"false", "fake"

ablikasta

"become invalid"

A few other suffixes perform similar tasks, with more specific meanings. These are usually quite regular. The most productive among these suffixes are:

-we "to remain", "still be"
-kas "to seem", "to appear"
-ʃyn "to pretend to be"
-dobb(a)- "to cease to be", "to be no longer"
-guj "to be a little bit"

Ex.:

Adjective Verb
nøssar

"calm"

nøssarwe "remain calm", "keep calm"

nøssarkaʃ "seem/appear calm"

nøssarʃyn "pretend to be calm"

nøssardobba "cease to be calm"

nøssarguj "be a little calm"

dotrɛ

"old"

dotrɛkaʃ "seem/appear old"

dotrɛguj "be a little old"

Numerals

The basic cardinal numbers are:

0 kal, kahtral
1 mihen
2 dahas
3 travis
4 gazen
5 kɛʃav
6 pinjan
7 høtak
8 magɛl
9 donwaʒ
10 zɛhɛv
11 zɛhɛv mihen, zɛvhen
12 zɛhɛv dahas, zɛvdas
13 zɛhɛv travis, zɛvtras
14 zɛhɛv gazen, zɛvzen
15 zɛhɛv kɛʃav, zɛvkʃav
16 zɛhɛv pinjan, zɛvpan
17 zɛhɛv høtak,zɛvhøk
18 zɛhɛv magɛl, zɛvmal
19 zɛhɛv donwaʒ, zɛvdaʒ
20 dahassɛv
30 travissɛv
40 gazennɛv
50 kɛʃavvɛv
60 pinjannɛv
70 høtakkɛv
80 magɛllɛv
90 donwaʒʒɛv
100 lakin
1,000 tatrimi
10,000 zɛhɛv tatrimi

Numbers are composed by joining the base units above, from bigger to lower. Ex.:

23 dahassɛv travis
45 gazennɛv kɛʃav
67 pinjannɛv høtak
89 magɛllɛv donwaʒ
123 lakin dahassɛv travis
456 gazen lakin kɛʃavvɛv pinjan
789 høtak lakin magɛllɛv donwaʒ
1,234 tatrimi dahas lakin travissɛv gazen
5,678 kɛʃav tatrimi pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl
12,345 zɛvdas tatrimi travis lakin gazennɛv kɛʃav
678,910 pinjan lakin høtakkɛv magɛl tatrimi donwaʒ lakin zɛhɛv


Ordinal numbers are created with the suffix -iki. Ex.:


1st miheniki
2nd dahasiki
3rd travisiki
4th gazeniki
5th kɛʃaviki
6th pinjaniki
7th høtakiki
8th magɛliki
9th donwaʒiki
10th zɛhɛviki, zɛhviki
11th zɛvheniki
12th zɛvdasiki
13th zɛvtrasiki
14th zɛvzeniki
15th zɛvkʃaviki
16th zɛvpaniki
17th zɛvhøkiki
18th zɛvmaliki
19th zɛvdaʒiki
20th dahassɛviki
30th travissɛviki
40th gazennɛviki
50th kɛʃavvɛviki
60th pinjannɛviki
70th høtakkɛviki
80th magɛllɛviki
90th donwaʒʒɛviki
100th lakiniki
1,000th tatrimiiki

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Personal Pronouns in Dahur indicate person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and number (singular, dual, plural).

1st Person dɛ "I" , "me" ʃes "we both" ʃɛn "we", "us"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative dɛ ʃes ʃɛn
Accusative dɛa, da ʃeas, ʃas ʃan
Dative dɛw, du ʃeus, ʃews, ʃus ʃɛun, ʃɛwn, ʃun
Genitive dɛk ʃesk ʃɛkɛn, ʃkɛn
Locative dɛbb ʃeps ʃɛmb
Instrumental dɛm ʃems ʃɛom, ʃom
Ablative dɛv ʃɛfs ʃɛɛv, ʃɛv
Ergative dɛjøtr, dɛtr ʃesøtr ʃɛtrøn, ʃtrøn
Partitive - ʃets ʃɛnt
2nd Person hej "you (sg.), thou" kwes "you both" kwɛn "you (pl.)"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative hej kwes kwɛn
Accusative heja, ja kweas, kwas kwɛan, kwan
Dative heju, ju kweus kwɛun, kun
Genitive heik, hejik kwesk kwɛnek, kwɛnk
Locative heibb, hibb kweps kwɛmb
Instrumental heim, him kwems kwɛom, kwɛm, kwom
Ablative hejɛv, jɛv kwɛfs kwɛɛv, kwɛv
Ergative hejøtr, hjøtr kwesøtr kwɛtrøn
Vocative heje kwejes kwɛjɛn
Partitive - kwets kwɛnt
3rd Person nar "he", "she", "it" ras "they both" ren "they", "them"
Singular Dual Plural
Nominative nar ras rɛn
Accusative nara, ra ras rɛan, ran
Dative naru, ru raus, raws, rus rɛun, rɛwn, run
Genitive narɛk, rɛk resk rɛkɛn, ɛrken
Locative narebb, rebb reps rɛmb
Instrumental narom, rom rems rɛnom, rom
Ablative narɛv, rɛv rɛfs rɛɛv, rɛv
Ergative narøtr, røtr resøtr rɛtrøn, ɛrtrøn
Partitive - rets rɛnt

The genitive forms work as possessive pronouns. In that case, the definite article is optional. Ex.:

  • tru dɛk astrønɛl, dɛk astrønɛl "my idea"
  • na heik kʃalima, heik kʃalima "your hair (accus.)"
  • trom narɛk kɛʃevom, narɛk kɛʃevom "with his/her hammer (instr.)"
  • tu dɛk menirun, dɛk menirun "to my children (dat.)"

Demonstrative Pronouns

Interrogative Pronouns

Indefinite Pronouns

Relative Pronoun

The main relative pronoun in Dahur is jao, as shown in the following table.


Singular Dual Plural
Nominative jao jes jen
Accusative jaa, ja jeas, jas jaan, jan
Dative jau, jaw jeus, jews jeun, jewn
Genitive jak jesk jenk
Locative jaebb jaeps jaemb
Instrumental jaom jaoms jaom
Ablative jaɛv jaɛfs janɛv
Ergative jaøtr jasøtr jatrøn
Partitive - jets jent

The pronoun agrees in number with the antecedent, but its case is determined by its function in the subordinate clause. Ex.:

  • tru grats jao ateʃfanej "the boy (nom.) who (nom.) is running away"
  • na gratsa jao ateʃfanej "the boy (accus.) who (nom.) is running away"
  • kʃu gratsu jao ateʃfanej "to the boy (dat.) who (nom.) is running away"
  • kis gratsak jao ateʃfanej "of the boy (gen.) who (nom.) is running away"
  • trø gratsøtr jao ateʃfanej "by the boy (erg.) who (nom.) is running away"
  • tann gratsen jen ateʃfanɛw "the boys (nom.) who (nom.) are running away"
  • ta gratsan jen ateʃfanɛw "the boys (accus.) who (nom.) are running away"
  • tun gratsun jen ateʃfanɛw "to the boys (dat.) who (nom.) are running away"
  • tak gratsken jen ateʃfanɛw "of the boys (gen.) who (nom.) are running away"
  • tøtr gratsetrøn jen ateʃfanɛw "by the boys (erg.) who (nom.) are running away"
  • tru grats jaa kahettsa "the boy (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw"
  • na gratsa jaa kahettsa "the boy (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw"
  • kʃu gratsu jaa kahettsa "to the boy (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw"
  • kis gratsak jaa kahettsa "of the boy (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw"
  • trø gratsøtr jaa kahettsa "by the boy (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw"
  • tann gratsen jaan kahettsa "the boys (nom.) whom (acc.) I saw"
  • ta gratsan jaan kahettsa "the boys (acc.) whom (acc.) I saw"
  • tun gratsun jaan kahettsa "to the boys (dat.) whom (acc.) I saw"
  • tak gratsken jaan kahettsa "of the boys (gen.) whom (acc.) I saw"
  • tøtr gratsetrøn jaan kahettsa "by the boys (erg.) whom (acc.) I saw"

Besides this pronoun, relative clauses may also be formed with special verb forms.

Ex.:

Verbs

Finite Forms

Verbs in Dahur have different stems indicating aspect. The conjugation uses different sets of endings to indicate tense or time.

The basic verb stems are:

Aspect Meaning Form
Generic verbal idea without a specific context, time or aspect the basic stem of the verb
Cursive (Progressive; Continuous) action ongoing at the moment of reference prefix a- and suffix -(a)n-
Aorist a complete or punctual action suffix -(e)tt-
Perfect the result of an action that happened before the reference time suffix -(l)l(a)-
Unrealised (Future) action as not realised in relation to the reference time prefix u- and suffix -(u)ʃ-
Conditional irrealis, usually an action depending on another prefix i- and suffix -i-

Stem formation is often irregular.

Ex.:

Generic Cursive Aorist Perfect Unrealised Conditional
kaʃmal "take" kaʃmal- akʃmalan- kaʃmalett- kaʃmalla- ukaʃmaluʃ- ikaʃmali-
la "be" la- alan- latt- lalla- ulauʃ- ilai-
wennin "live" wennin- awann- wennett- wennilla- uwenninʃ- iwennini-
gadra "write" gadra- agandran- gadrett- gadralla- ugadruʃ- igadri-
tefʃiv "flee" tefʃiv- ateʃfan- tefʃivett- tefʃivla- utefʃivuʃ- itefʃivi-
maʃkintɾod "represent" maʃkintɾod- amaʃkintɾon- maʃkintɾott- maʃkintɾolla- umaʃkintɾotʃ- imaʃkintɾodi-
kajnaar "jump" kajnaar- akajnaan- kajnerett- kajnaalla- ukajnaaruʃ- ikajnaari-
taldesyys "take care of" taldesyys- ataldesyyn- taldesyyst- taldesyyll- utaldesyyʃ- italdesyysi-
kota "eat" kota- ankon- kotatt- kekolla- ukotuʃ- ikoti-
hussi "hear, listen" hussi- ahsejn- hust- huzilla- uhussuʃ- ihusseji-
ken, kena "see" ken-, kena- angen- kahett- kenalla-, kralla- ukunuʃ- ikeni-
mend "become" mend- amdan- menett- mendla- umenduʃ- imendi-
ustaj, ustaji "come" ustaj-, ustaji- anstajn-, anstajin- ustatt-, ustitt- ustalla-, ustilla- ustajuʃ- istaji-
maj "go" maj- amann- menett- mjalla- umujuʃ- imaji-
trak "do, make" trak- atrakan- tetrakett ketralla- utrakʃ- itraggi-


The personal endings are :

Present Past Future
1s -us -sa -os
2s -im -mis -om
3s -ej -jes -oj
1p -ɔn -sɔn -on
2p -ib -ips -ob
3p -ɛw -sɛw -ow


The following combinations of stem + ending set occur:

Present Past Future
Generic Simple

Present

Habitual

Past ("used to")

Indefinite

Future

Cursive Present

Continuous

Past

Continuous

Future

Progressive

Aorist Simple

Past (Aorist)

Definite Future

(Specific, Punctual)

Perfect Present

Perfect

Past

Perfect

Future

Perfect

Unrealised Near

Future

Unrealised

Past ("would")

Future

(Remote)

Conditional Conditional

Present

Conditional

Past

While the formation of aspect stems is often irregular, the combination of stem + endings is usually quite regular and predictable. The usual epenthetic phonemes occur, mostly the semivowels (j and w), when two vowels come together, but these are more an artifact of speech and aren't usually indicated in writing. Ex.:

  • kaʃmallaus, kaʃmallawus
  • kaʃmallaim, kaʃmallajim
  • kaʃmallaej, kaʃmallajej, kaʃmallahej
  • kaʃmallaɔn, kaʃmallawɔn
  • igadriips, igadrijips
  • igadrius, igadrijus
  • &c.

Conjugation

Next you have a few verbs, conjugated in all its forms.

Verb la "be"
Simple Present Present Continuous Present Perfect Near Future Conditional Present
1s laus alanus lallaus ulauʃus ilaius
2s laim alanim lallaim ulauʃim ilaiim
3s laje alanje lallaje ulauʃje ilaije
1p laɔn alanɔn lallaɔn ulauʃɔn ilaiɔn
2p laib alanib lallaib ulauʃib ilaiib
3p laɛw alanɛw lallaɛw ulauʃɛw ilaiɛw
Habitual Past Past Continuous Simple Past Past Perfect Unrealised Past Conditional Past
1s lasa alansa lattsa lallasa ulauʃsa ilaisa
2s lamis alanmis lattmis lallamis ulauʃmis ilaimis
3s lajes alanjes lattjes lallajes ulauʃjes ilaijes
1p lasɔn alansɔn lattsɔn lallasɔn ulauʃsɔn ilaisɔn
2p laips alanips lattips lallaips ulauʃips ilaiips
3p lasɛw alansɛw lattsɛw lallasɛw ulauʃsɛw ilaisɛw
Indefinite Future Future Progressive Definite Future Future Perfect Remote Future
1s laos alanos lattos lallaos ulauʃos
2s laom alanom lattom lallaom ulauʃom
3s laoj alanoj lattoj lallaoj ulauʃoj
1p laon alanon latton lallaon ulauʃon
2p laob alanob lattob lallaob ulauʃob
3p laow alanow lattow lallaow ulauʃow


Verb hussi "hear, listen"
Simple Present Present Continuous Present Perfect Near Future Conditional Present
1s hussius ahsejnus huzillaus uhussuʃus ihussejius
2s hussiim ahsejnim huzillaim uhussuʃim ihussejiim
3s hussije ahsejnje huzillaje uhussuʃje ihussejije
1p hussiɔn ahsejnɔn huzillaɔn uhussuʃɔn ihussejiɔn
2p hussiib ahsejnib huzillaib uhussuʃib ihussejiib
3p hussiɛw ahsejnɛw huzillaɛw uhussuʃɛw ihussejiɛw
Habitual Past Past Continuous Simple Past Past Perfect Unrealised Past Conditional Past
1s hussisa ahsejnsa hustsa huzillasa uhussuʃsa ihussejisa
2s hussimis ahsejnmis hustmis huzillamis uhussuʃmis ihussejimis
3s hussijes ahsejnjes hustjes huzillajes uhussuʃjes ihussejijes
1p hussisɔn ahsejnsɔn hustsɔn huzillasɔn uhussuʃsɔn ihussejisɔn
2p hussiips ahsejnips hustips huzillaips uhussuʃips ihussejiips
3p hussisɛw ahsejnsɛw hustsɛw huzillasɛw uhussuʃsɛw ihussejisɛw
Indefinite Future Future Progressive Definite Future Future Perfect Remote Future
1s hussios ahsejnos hustos huzillaos uhussuʃos
2s hussiom ahsejnom hustom huzillaom uhussuʃom
3s hussioj ahsejnoj hustoj huzillaoj uhussuʃoj
1p hussion ahsejnon huston huzillaon uhussuʃon
2p hussiob ahsejnob hustob huzillaob uhussuʃob
3p hussiow ahsejnow hustow huzillaow uhussuʃow
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